C

[解析] Main idea
   This question depends on understanding the passage as a whole. The first paragraph discusses an evolutionary change undergone by columnar cacti in the Sonoran Desert with regard to pollination. The second paragraph offers a possible reason for this change—migratory nectar-feeding bats are unreliable pollinators—and the third paragraph goes on to provide evidence that supports the reason given in the second paragraph.
   A. The passage does compare the adaptations of cacti in the Sonoran Desert with those of cacti in southern Mexico, but it does so in support of a larger point about the Sonoran Desert cacti.
   B. The relatively low abundance of migratory nectar-feeding bats in the Sonoran Desert is important to the passage in that it provides a reason why the columnar cacti in that region have made certain adaptations. But the passage does not explain why the bats are not particularly abundant.
   C. Correct. The flowers of the columnar cacti in the Sonoran Desert have evolved to remain open after sunrise, and the passage is primarily concerned with explaining why this change may have taken place.
   D. The passage presents recent findings that support, rather than challenge, a theory as to why the columnar cacti of the Sonoran Desert have expanded their range of pollinators. The passage does not allude to any competing theory that may be challenged by the findings.
   E. Any comparison of the effectiveness of nocturnal and diurnal pollination for columnar cacti in the Sonoran Desert is made in support of the passage's primary concern: explaining why these cacti have come to remain open and receptive to pollination in daylight.
   The correct answer is C.

B

[解析] Supporting idea
   This question depends on recognizing the qualities of an unreliable pollinator, as described in the passage. The second paragraph addresses this issue: it explains that the unreliability of pollinators can arise in any of three ways: they may be dietary generalists with alternative sources of food; they may be dietary specialists whose own abundance varies; or they may be dietary specialists whose abundance is chronically low in relation to the flowers.
   A. A dietary specialist whose abundance is high in relation to the flowers on which it feeds would likely be a reliable pollinator.
   B. Correct. A dietary specialist whose abundance is at times significantly lower than that of the flower it pollinates would be, according to the passage, unreliable.
   C. A dietary generalist who finds the flower of a particular species more consistently available than other suitable food sources would most likely be a reliable pollinator of that flower.
   D. A dietary generalist who prefers the flower's nectar would likely be a reliable pollinator of that flower compared to other flowers.
   E. The passage provides no reason to believe that the evolution of a pollinator's dietary preference has any bearing on its reliability as a pollinator.
   The correct answer is B.

E

[解析] Supporting idea
   This question depends on identifying a difference noted in the passage between columnar cacti in the Sonoran Desert and their relatives in southern Mexico. The first paragraph states that in southern Mexico, columnar cactus flowers are not receptive to pollination by diurnal pollinators, whereas in the Sonoran Desert, the flowers have evolved to allow diurnal pollination.
   A. The cacti in both the Sonoran Desert and southern Mexico have flowers that remain open after sunset, because cacti in both locations can be pollinated nocturnally.
   B. Sonoran Desert cacti are pollinated, at least partially, by nectar-feeding bats, which are dietary specialists. But the cacti in southern Mexico are pollinated by these specialists, too.
   C. Sonoran Desert cacti can be pollinated by nectar-feeding bats—but so can cacti in southern Mexico.
   D. Cacti in the Sonoran Desert have stigmas that have evolved to be receptive to pollination both at night and during the day.
   E. Correct. The distinction between cacti in the Sonoran Desert and those in southern Mexico is that Sonoran Desert cacti have evolved to allow pollination during the day—that is, pollination by diurnal pollinators.
   The correct answer is E.

C

[解析] Inference
   This question asks for an inference about what a manufacturer in a capital-intensive industry must do to have an advantage over competitors making similar products. The passage addresses this question by stating that advantage accrues to those firms that are the first to exploit the full potential of optimally sized, technologically sophisticated plants. In this context, exploiting the full potential of such plants means operating them at minimum efficient scale. Based on the definition in the first paragraph, this means that the plant must have an output of such a size that the cost per unit of output is at a minimum.
   A. The passage says that for new capital-intensive firms to dominate the market, it is not enough for them to have optimally sized plants; the plants must also be operated in a way that fully exploits their potential.
   B. While keeping fixed and sunk costs low would obviously help keep overall costs low, the passage does not suggest that this is decisive in enabling a firm to have an advantage over competitors.
   C. Correct. Being among the first manufacturers to operate plants at minimum efficient scale means that those plants are being exploited to their full potential. This strategy would most likely give such manufacturers a decisive advantage over new firms hoping to compete effectively.
   D. The passage does not discuss the quality of goods made by manufacturers.
   E. The passage does not suggest that stockpiling raw materials is the most efficient way to ensure a steady flow of raw materials into the manufacturing process, though the passage states that such a steady flow is a factor in achieving minimum efficient scale.
   The correct answer is C.

E

[解析] Inference
   This question asks about what the passage implies about fixed and sunk costs. The passage states that when production declines due to certain factors, such costs remain at the same level (which may be high), and the cost per unit produced (unit costs) rises sharply.
   A. The passage discusses the impact of market conditions on determining what the optimal size of a manufacturing plant is (which affects fixed and sunk costs). But it makes no claim about the frequency with which such an impact is "underestimated."
   B. The passage emphasizes that failing to keep throughput at an efficiently high level reduces profitability because that failure results in increased cost per unit (to which, of course, the plant's fixed and sunk costs contribute). But the passage does not claim that keeping aggregate fixed and sunk costs very low is necessary in order to have the most competitive production operation.
   C. The passage emphasizes that the crucial factor in achieving economies of scale is efficient operation of the production facilities, not the size of the firm's fixed and sunk costs (even though such costs are clearly in part determined by the size and design of the production facilities).
   D. While a manufacturer's fixed and sunk costs may be on a par with those of the manufacturer's competitors, the passage provides no grounds for inferring that there is any need for them to be (for example, physical plants that employ different technologies may have different price tags).
   E. Correct. According to the passage, "throughput" refers to the flow of materials through a plant. This flow can vary as a result of various factors, but fixed and sunk costs—financial resources already committed—remain the same regardless of such variation.
   The correct answer is E.

A

[解析] Evaluation
   This question asks about the rhetorical function of the second paragraph. While the first paragraph argues that a crucial factor in achieving economies of scale is intangible capital, or organized human capabilities, the second paragraph uses the example of new capital-intensive manufacturing industries to help show that this is indeed the case.
   A. Correct. The second paragraph provides an example that illustrates the claims made in the first paragraph. It discusses the way in which intangible capital—e.g., distribution networks, marketing systems, smooth production processes, and qualified management teams—enables manufacturers in new capital-intensive manufacturing industries to realize economies of scale and achieve market dominance.
   B. The second paragraph does, in a sense, "evaluate" investment in intangible capital: it suggests that such investment is necessary. However, investment in intangible capital is the only strategy it discusses.
   C. The second paragraph supports rather than undermines the first paragraph's argument.
   D. Nothing in the second paragraph suggests that there are, or could be, any objections to the first paragraph's argument.
   E. The second paragraph discusses the potential positive outcomes of investing in intangible capital. It suggests that there might be negative consequences to not making such investments, but it does not indicate that avoiding such investments is a commonly used strategy.
   The correct answer is A.

D

[解析] Application
   This question may be best approached by using an elimination strategy—first finding the four choices that can reasonably be inferred from the passage, and then checking to make sure that the remaining choice cannot reasonably be inferred. This requires understanding the information the passage gives about throughput, then making inferences about what can cause throughput to drop. The passage defines throughput generally as the flow of materials through a plant and goes on to explain that it involves coordination of the production process itself, as well as obtaining materials from suppliers and marketing and distributing the manufactured products. Anything that damages this flow of materials and products would be said to have an adverse effect on throughput.
   A. Making a poor judgment about a wholesaler would most likely have an adverse effect on throughput, in that it could affect the flow of output to wholesalers and final consumers.
   B. A breakdown in machinery would likely fall into the category of problems on the factory floor mentioned in the passage and would likely prove damaging to throughput because of its effect on the production process itself.
   C. A labor dispute would also likely fall into the category of problems on the factory floor mentioned in the passage and would probably cause a decline in production and thus adversely affect throughput.
   D. Correct. The passage emphasizes that changes in throughput can cause increases or decreases in costs per unit. But the passage is not committed to any claims about how changes in costs per unit might affect throughput.
   E. The passage suggests that inefficient sales networks could cause a decline in production. Thus a decrease in sales efficiency would most likely adversely affect a manufacturer's ability to provide goods to consumers, and thus would create problems with throughput.
   The correct answer is D.

A

[解析] Main idea
   This question depends on understanding the passage as a whole. In general, it makes an argument for investing in intangible capital as a way for manufacturers to realize economies of scale, and it supports its argument with an example.
   A. Correct. The passage focuses on intangible capital as a crucial factor in realizing economies of scale.
   B. According to the passage, manufacturers gain competitive advantage by building plants of optimal size that they then fully exploit; nothing in the passage suggests that large plants are frequently optimal.
   C. The passage assumes that manufacturers invest appropriately in tangible capital and argues that it is important for them to invest in intangible capital as well.
   D. The passage states that new capital-intensive manufacturing industries are dominated not by firms that are the first to build large plants, but by firms that exploit the full potential of their plants.
   E. The passage indicates that economies of scale can be achieved in plants of optimal size. The passage does not suggest that large plants cannot be optimal.
   The correct answer is A.

C

[解析] Main idea
   This question depends on understanding the passage as a whole in order to identify its purpose. The first paragraph defines population cycles of lepidoptera and discusses some ways those cycles have been studied. It suggests that a particular agent may regulate these cycles. The second paragraph describes a candidate for this agent: nuclear polyhedrosis viruses. The third paragraph explains why this hypothesis is compelling.
   A. The passage mentions new techniques in molecular biology, but it does so in order to explain why a particular candidate for the agent behind population cycles has come to light.
   B. The theory the passage presents is that there is a driving force behind lepidoptera population cycles. It does not refute this theory; rather, it offers a convincing case for nuclear polyhedrosis viruses as that force. It also discusses some previous approaches to seeking plausible hypotheses but does not focus on refuting any particular hypothesis.
   C. Correct. The passage is primarily concerned with presenting the hypothesis that nuclear polyhedrosis viruses are the driving force behind lepidoptera population cycles.
   D. The first paragraph describes the fluctuating patterns of lepidoptera population cycles, but it does so to explain what population cycles are, so that it can then go on to attempt to account for those cycles.
   E. The passage is concerned with making a case for nuclear polyhedrosis viruses as the driving force behind at least some lepidoptera population cycles, not with questioning the idea that there is a driving force.
   The correct answer is C.

A

[解析] Inference
   The passage states that mortality caused by various agents, birds and parasites among them, was measured because this was the common approach to studying causes of population cycles. This in turn suggests that those scientists engaged in such measuring in the case of lepidoptera were attempting to come up with a definitive explanation for why those lepidoptera population cycles occurred.
   A. Correct. Measuring mortality caused by various agents was part of the attempt to determine the driving force behind lepidoptera population cycles.
   B. The passage does not indicate that behavioral factors in lepidoptera are related to their mortality as caused by agents such as predatory birds or parasites.
   C. The passage is concerned not with controlling lepidoptera population growth, but rather with determining why population cycles occur.
   D. According to the information in the passage, scientists sought to measure mortality caused by particular agents in order to determine the driving force behind lepidoptera population cycles. In suggesting that mortality caused by these agents is not that force, the measurements may have indicated that the cycles could be self-regulating, but they were not undertaken in order to provide such evidence.
   E. The passage discusses mortality primarily in the caterpillar stage and does not suggest that any research was directed toward comparing caterpillar mortality rates with mortality rates in other life stages of the insects.
   The correct answer is A.

B

[解析] Evaluation
   The sentence in question presents the author's conclusion that lepidoptera populations may be self-regulating or regulated by something more closely connected to the insects than predatory birds or parasites are. To weaken that conclusion requires weakening its support, namely, that mortality caused by predators and parasites seems not to affect population cycles, and that changing habitats and reducing populations has not altered population cycles either.
   A. A drop in birds and parasites preying on lepidoptera would not weaken the author's conclusion; mortality caused by these predators has not affected population cycles.
   B. Correct. New experiments involving changes in habitat that did succeed in altering population cycles would suggest that the populations are not in fact self-regulating, and that the search for another cycle-altering agent may be unnecessary.
   C. This finding would support the idea that the nuclear polyhedrosis virus is responsible for population cycles—that is, that the virus is the closely connected agent the author concludes is responsible.
   D. The suggestion that the effects of weather may not have been adequately assessed is remotely relevant to the author's conclusion, but the mere difficulty of assessing the effects provides no positive reason to suppose that weather may be the cause of the cycles. On the other hand, answer choice B does offer evidence for an alternative explanation.
   E. Viral disease is what the author ultimately suggests is the agent that drives the lepidoptera population cycles in question. The wide presence of viruses in lepidoptera could help support the author's conclusion.
   The correct answer is B.

D

[解析] Supporting idea
   This question addresses what the passage states directly about population ecologists' beliefs regarding viral diseases prior to the discovery of new viral DNA-detection techniques. The second paragraph of the passage states that these ecologists believed viral disease contributed to population decline that was already underway rather than initiating it.
   A. The second paragraph states that viral disease had been reported; thus, population ecologists were aware of its existence in insect populations. The passage is consistent with ecologists having believed that it was prevalent.
   B. The passage focuses mainly on the caterpillar life stage of lepidoptera, but there is nothing to suggest that scientists held particular beliefs regarding viral diseases' restriction to that life stage.
   C. It is after, not before, the discovery of new techniques for detecting viral DNA when populations ecologists came to believe that such diseases were the driving force behind the population cycles.
   D. Correct. As stated in the passage, population ecologists believed that viral diseases contributed to already occurring population decline.
   E. The passage does not discuss whether viral diseases may infect any lepidoptera predators.
   The correct answer is D.

E

[解析] Supporting idea
   The passage states in the second paragraph that these viruses remain virulent for many years if they are protected from direct sunlight. They are embedded in crystals of polyhedrin protein.
   A. The viruses remain virulent partially because of their being contained in polyhedrin protein crystals. They would most likely not remain virulent if those crystals dissolved.
   B. The viruses remain virulent even when caterpillar populations are not in decline; that is how the viruses initiate new population declines.
   C. According to the passage, viral DNA has been detected in the environment at low concentrations, yet the viruses are still virulent. Thus, they need not be present in large numbers.
   D. Nothing in the passage indicates that the concentration of these viruses must be low for them to be virulent.
   E. Correct. The passage says that if the viruses are protected from direct sunlight, they remain virulent for many years. The context strongly suggests that if they are not so protected, they do not remain virulent.
   The correct answer is E.

C

[解析] Inference
   The passage indicates that the polyhedrin protein crystals protect the nuclear polyhedrosis virus when it is in the environment. When a caterpillar ingests those crystals, they dissolve. That releases the virus, whereupon it infects the caterpillar's cells. Thus it is reasonable to infer that the virus must be released from the crystals before it can infect the caterpillar.
   A. The passage states that nuclear polyhedrosis viruses remain embedded in polyhedrin protein crystals if protected from direct sunlight, not that the virus is exposed to light when it is in the protein crystals.
   B. Nothing in the passage indicates that any organism preys on the virus itself or that it attracts predators to caterpillars that it infects.
   C. Correct. The virus must be released from the crystals before it can infect caterpillars' cells.
   D. The passage states that caterpillars ingest the polyhedrin protein crystals.
   E. According to the passage, new techniques of molecular biology enable the detection of viral DNA in the environment. The nuclear polyhedrosis virus persists in the environment inside protein crystals. The passage suggests that the new techniques are able to detect the virus inside its crystals but does not provide any evidence about whether they detect it directly or infer its presence indirectly.
   The correct answer is C.

A

[解析] Supporting ideas
   This question addresses what the information in the passage indicates about plant antiherbivore chemistry—that is, plants' chemical defenses against herbivore attacks. The second paragraph of the passage cites the views of various scientists regarding the possible role of resin in antiherbivore chemistry; plants could have evolved resin specifically to repel insects.
   A. Correct. According to the second paragraph, various scientists have suggested that a change in antiherbivore chemistry, here specifically involving resin, could repel insects; alternatively, some insects could have been attracted to resin, feeding more heavily on plants that produced it. Other researchers have suggested that even if resin does not directly repel or attract insects, it may indirectly affect insect-feeding behavior by mediating changes in plants' antiherbivore chemistry.
   B. The first paragraph states that plants produce gum in response to bacterial infections. Although this does not rule out the hypothesis that gum also contributes to plants' antiherbivore chemistry, the passage provides no evidence that it does so.
   C. According to the passage, a plant's antiherbivore responses have developed to combat predators, such as insects, that eat plants. The passage provides no evidence that such responses also combat bacterial infections.
   D. The second paragraph indicates that plant antiherbivore chemistry plays a major role in the discipline of chemical ecology, and chemical ecology concerns itself with coevolution of plants and insects.
   E. According to the passage, it was in the 1950s that entomologists began discussing resin's possible role in repelling and attracting insects. The passage does not suggest that this marked the beginning of their study of repellent effects more generally.
   The correct answer is A.

E

[解析] Application
   The discipline of chemical ecology, as it is described in the passage, deals with how plants use chemicals to interact with other organisms—in particular, how they defend against attack—and how those interactions have evolved. To be studied within that discipline, a specific topic would need to address some aspect of that chemical interaction.
   A. The passage provides no reason to suppose that the topic of seeds and how they travel would be studied within chemical ecology, given that it does not discuss how chemicals might be involved in the reproductive cycle.
   B. The passage provides no indication that chemical ecology would be concerned with how weed-destroying insects would aid agricultural production.
   C. The passage provides no indication that deforestation would involve plant chemicals or that its effects would be studied in chemical ecology.
   D. The passage provides no indication that a plant's resistance to herbicides would be studied in chemical ecology, but the passage does suggest that the focus of chemical ecology is on how plants chemically interact with other organisms.
   E. Correct. Chemical ecology developed to deal with the interdependence between plants and insects. Insects' developing a tolerance for feeding on a once-toxic plant, and the plants' resultant changes, is a situation of just such interdependence: plants and insects coevolving.
   The correct answer is E.

A

[解析] Evaluation
   The author mentions bacterial infections in the first paragraph as the reason why plants produce the substance known as gum.
   A. Correct. The author states directly that plants produce gum in response to bacterial infections.
   B. The author states directly that sap is transported through plant tissues. The passage does not address the question of whether bacterial infections or anything related to them are similarly transported.
   C. The passage indicates that rigorous chemical analysis is now available, but scientists still do not know resin's function. The reference to bacterial infections is related to gum, not resin.
   D. The reference to bacterial infections indicates the actual purpose served by gum; it does not function to show ways in which gum is inadequate.
   E. Gum itself serves as an example of the confusion surrounding the nature of resin; bacterial infections, to which gum production is a response, do not serve as that example.
   The correct answer is A.

D

[解析] Evaluation
   The passage states generally that amber has been widely misunderstood but cites Pliny as noting correctly, in the first century, that amber resulted from a substance discharged by trees.
   A. Pliny's observation was, according to the author, accurate and not a misunderstanding.
   B. The author equates confusion about amber with confusion about resin; the reference to Pliny does not indicate which of the two, amber or resin, has been more widely misunderstood.
   C. The author indicates that others, not Pliny, mischaracterized amber as a semiprecious gem—and when that mischaracterization first occurred is not identified.
   D. Correct. Pliny's recognition that amber came from a substance discharged by trees stands, in the author's account, as an exception to the widespread incorrect identifications of the substance.
   E. Others held the belief that amber was a mineral. The passage indicates that Pliny recognized that amber came from trees but provides no evidence that he also considered it a mineral.
   The correct answer is D.

D

[解析] Main idea
   This question depends on understanding the passage as a whole. The passage first describes the view of many economic historians of the 1980s. It next describes the evidence on which that view is based. The remainder of the passage raises issues about the rationale for that view.
   A. The comparison between Latin America and the United States is only a small part of a larger argument analyzing studies of the Great Depression in Latin America.
   B. The passage does not discuss a global context for the Great Depression.
   C. The passage does not primarily aim to illustrate risks that may be generally inherent in explaining economic phenomena.
   D. Correct. The passage claims that certain scholars underestimate the severity of the Great Depression in Latin America.
   E. The passage does not claim that the impact of the Great Depression on Latin American industry was generally more severe than its impact on industry elsewhere.
   The correct answer is D.

D

[解析] Inference
   This question asks which conclusion is most strongly supported by the passage. The passage presents the rationale of some historians for their conclusion that the Great Depression did not significantly interfere with economic growth in Latin America. It then critiques that rationale and conclusion. By questioning the historians' claims, the passage suggests that a reevaluation of the Great Depression's effect on Latin America is needed.
   A. The passage does not significantly support this. The passage indicates that, in fact, the Great Depression impeded Latin American economic development more than some historians had thought.
   B. The passage does not significantly support this. The passage does not compare the impact on the Brazilian and Mexican textile industries to the impact on the Latin American region.
   C. The passage does not significantly support this. The passage does not compare the effect of the Great Depression on the textile industry to its effect on other industries.
   D. Correct. As presented in the passage, the passage author's critique of the historians' rationale for their claims provides significant support for the conclusion that their claims should be reevaluated.
   E. The passage does not significantly support the claim that the comparison in question should not be made.
   The correct answer is D.

B

Application
   The question involves applying information from outside the passage to a claim made by the author. The text in lines 25-27 asserts that broad economic indicators pertaining to a nation or region can obscure differences between individual firms or industries within that nation or region. The question asks which evidence would most strengthen the support for that conclusion.
   A. This refers only to the relationship between a single industry's profits and its output, not to general economic indicators.
   B. Correct. The phrase a national recession refers to a general economic indicator. Suppose that in a situation described as a national recession, one industry (microchip manufacturing) prospers while another industry (steel manufacturing) does not. This would provide some additional support, over and above that given in the passage, for the assertion that broad economic indicators may mask differences between industries.
   C. Economic differences between countries do not strengthen the support for the author's assertion regarding variations among different firms and industries in one country or region.
   D. This has no obvious bearing on how sweeping economic indicators can mask differences between industries or enterprises in a single country or region.
   E. A comparison of different countries does not pertain to the assertion regarding variation among firms and industries in the same country.
   The correct answer is B.

B

[解析] Inference
   This item depends on understanding the implications of the passage's discussion of differences between large and small plants. It asks what might be true of a larger plant that would compel it to spend more than a smaller plant on environmental compliance. The passage addresses this issue by stating that smaller plants are often not subject to the same permit or reporting requirements that larger plants are.
   A. The likelihood of attracting regulatory attention is discussed only in the context of comparing plants that are isolated with small plants that are near large noncompliant ones. The passage does not suggest that size is generally the crucial determining factor in attracting regulatory attention.
   B. Correct. According to the passage, certain permit or reporting requirements may not apply to smaller plants; this suggests that larger plants are less likely than smaller plants to be exempt from these requirements, and thus that the larger plants would have to spend more to comply.
   C. The passage does not discuss the passing on of regulatory costs from suppliers to plants.
   D. The passage does not suggest that larger plants are any more likely than smaller plants to employ older production technologies.
   E. The passage does not distinguish between the types of wastes emitted by larger plants and those emitted by smaller plants.
   The correct answer is B.

C

[解析] Supporting idea
   This item depends on identifying what the passage states explicitly about outputs of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. The passage says that plants that produce these outputs are those that use older industrial coal-fired burners, and that such plants are subject to extensive compliance costs imposed by new regulations.
   A. The passage does not address the question of whether older production technologies might be adapted to reduce outputs of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
   B. The passage states that new regulations have imposed high compliance costs on companies that produce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide outputs, not that these outputs are prohibited.
   C. Correct. The passage states that some companies are still using the older kinds of burners that generate sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide outputs, and that new regulations have imposed high compliance costs on these companies.
   D. The passage does not address the question of whether older plants have developed new processes to reduce the amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide they produce.
   E. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide outputs, the passage suggests, are produced only by older industrial coal-fired burners; newer facilities (using alternative processes) do not employ this technology, the expense of which is not mentioned in the passage.
   The correct answer is C.

C

[解析] Evaluation
   This question asks about the role played in the passage by the following statement: Additionally, large plants can spread compliance costs such as waste treatment across a larger revenue base; on the other hand, some smaller plants may not even be subject to certain provisions such as permit or reporting requirements by virtue of their size. This statement describes situations in which compliance costs for plants of different sizes may differ, which serve as evidence in support of the passage's main claim: that environmental regulations do not affect all competitors in a given industry uniformly.
   A. The statement in question is not a hypothesis; rather, it reports factors that are known to affect the varying impact of environmental regulations.
   B. This is too vague to be a good description of the kind of relationship the question asks about. The statement in question does present a contrast—it suggests that larger plants' compliance costs are lower under some circumstances, while smaller plants' compliance costs are lower under other circumstances. But this purports to state two facts rather than mere ideas; they are contrasting facts but not in any meaningful sense opposed, since they can easily coexist.
   C. Correct. The statement provides examples to support the initial claim made in the passage that regulatory costs fall unevenly on competitors in an industry: large plants can spread compliance costs around, and smaller plants may not even have to pay certain costs.
   D. This statement helps to dispel, not exemplify, a misconception mentioned earlier in the passage—i.e., the myth that environmental regulations affect all companies in an industry the same way.
   E. The statement does not suggest that the situation of larger and smaller plants is similar (or analogous) to any other situation mentioned in the passage.
   The correct answer is C.

E

[解析] Main idea
   This question depends on understanding the passage as a whole. Its first sentence indicates its main purpose: to dispel a myth about environmental regulations that is often taken as fact.
   A. The passage is not about the management of any environmental problem, which would be a problem about how to prevent or undo damage to the environment. The passage primarily aims to dispel a belief that the passage says is widely held by environmental managers.
   B. The passage refers to variations in firms' levels of compliance with environmental regulations, but its primary purpose is not to illustrate those varying levels, nor does it do so.
   C. The passage suggests that most environmental managers are mistaken about a key concept; its primary purpose is not to describe traditional methods of environmental management or alternatives to those traditional methods, nor does it do so.
   D. The passage takes no position on whether companies should increase their compliance with environmental regulation.
   E. Correct. The passage primarily aims to dispel the belief that environmental regulations affect all companies in an industry uniformly.
   The correct answer is E.

D

[解析] Main idea
   This question concerns the main point of the passage. A careful examination of the overall structure of the passage will reveal the main point. In the first paragraph, the author briefly presents Milankovitch's theory and explains why it could not be tested early on. In the second and third paragraphs, the author describes how a new method allows testing of the theory and shows how evidence from the testing supports the theory. While the final paragraph acknowledges that other factors should be considered, the author's primary interest in this passage is in presenting Milankovitch's theory and the recently discovered method for testing it.
   A. A new research method is described, but no previous method is discussed.
   B. As described in the passage, the new method tests and confirms the theory; there is no mention that the theory is accepted or that the method casts doubt on it.
   C. Nothing in the passage suggests that "instability of data" is an issue.
   D. Correct. The author presents Milankovitch's theory and describes the oxygen isotope method of testing it.
   E. The theory is nowhere said to be "widely accepted" and the author does not debate the theory.
   The correct answer is D.

D

[解析] Application
   The author's reaction to the statements about the Milankovitch theory must be based on how the author treats the theory in the passage. The first, second, and third paragraphs describe the theory and the use of a new research method to test the theory. The passage states that data from these tests have established a strong connection between variations in the Earth's orbit and the periodicity of the ice ages, suggesting that the author of the passage believes the theory is plausible. In the final paragraph, the author points to other factors that might be involved, suggesting that the theory might not provide a complete explanation.
   A. In the last paragraph, the author suggests that because there are still other untested factors that may have effects on climate, other explanations are possible.
   B. Though in the last paragraph the author points to other factors that may be involved, these are not presented by the author as indicating limitations that diminish the plausibility of the theory—they are acknowledged merely as possibilities that are not now understood—and nothing else in the passage suggests that the theory is "too limited."
   C. The author shows how the theory has been tested; volcanic activity is not part of this theory.
   D. Correct. The author's presentation of the theory and the tests of the theory show that the author finds the theory plausible; the mention of other factors shows the author does not think that all other explanations have been ruled out, even if they are as yet untested.
   E. The theory was a plausible explanation from its beginning, but it was not testable until recently; scientists would be unlikely to try to devise means to test a theory that did not strike them as antecedently plausible.
   The correct answer is D.

B

[解析] Inference
   To make an inference about the isotope record from ocean sediments, examine what the passage says about that record. The third paragraph discusses that record and lists its two advantages. First, it is a global record with remarkably little variation in samples from varied locations. Second, it is more continuous than the record from rocks. If either of these advantages were not true, then it is logical to infer that the record would be less useful.
   A. According to lines 14-16, the lighter isotope does predominate; this is part of the record and does not affect its usefulness.
   B. Correct. In lines 37-42, the author states that an advantage of the ocean record is that it is a more continuous record than that taken from rocks on land. If this were not true, the ocean record would be less useful.
   C. If the record were to show that the shifts did not occur every 100,000 years, Milankovitch's theory would be weakened. This impact on the theory does not make the isotope record less useful to researchers. The record is useful precisely because it can offer evidence to confirm or refute such theories.
   D. This inconsistency would not affect the usefulness of the ocean-water record. Researchers would simply need to accommodate the fresh-water inconsistency.
   E. The record would still be useful. Lines 42-46 attest to the establishment of a pattern based on data from the past several hundred thousand years.
   The correct answer is B.

C

[解析] Supporting ideas
   The phrase according to the passage suggests that the answer to the question is most likely stated in the passage. Lines 12-14 state that the relative volume of land ice can be deduced from the ratio of oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 in ocean sediments.
   A. There is no evidence in the passage about this point.
   B. The ocean record is described in lines 38-39 as more continuous, so it is unlikely to be less reliable. In any case, reliability is not discussed.
   C. Correct. Lines 12-14 explain that the land-ice volume for a given period can be deduced from the ratio of two oxygen isotopes.
   D. There is no evidence in the passage to support this statement.
   E. The passage does not discuss the use of this record in determining past atmospheric conditions.
   The correct answer is C.

B

[解析] Inference
   Any inference about precipitation from evaporated ocean water needs to be based on what the passage says. Lines 20-22 show that heavier isotopes tend to be left behind when water evaporates from the ocean surfaces. Therefore, the evaporated water would contain less oxygen 18 and the remaining ocean water would contain more. It is logical to infer that precipitation formed from this evaporated water would also contain less oxygen 18.
   A. Lines 20-24 explain that the water remaining in the ocean after evaporation has more oxygen 18.
   B. Correct. Since the heavier isotopes tend to be left behind, there will be less oxygen 18 in the evaporated water and in the precipitation that forms from it.
   C. The passage suggests that the ocean water evaporates and through subsequent precipitation helps form the ice sheets, so the amount of oxygen 18 in the ice sheets should be similar to the amount in the precipitation formed from the evaporated water.
   D. The passage does not discuss precipitation formed from water on land.
   E. The passage does not discuss precipitation formed from fresh water.
   The correct answer is B.

E

[解析] Inference
   Any inference about calcium carbonate shells needs to be based on what the passage says about these shells. Lines 24-32 explain the role of these shells in forming sediments and establishing a chronology for ice ages. The shells were constructed with oxygen atoms drawn from the surrounding ocean. Lines 29-32 make it clear that if the sediments reveal a higher ratio of oxygen 18, it is because more oxygen 18 had been left behind when the ocean water evaporated and contributed to the growth of continental ice sheets. It can thus be inferred that the shells that make up those sediments must reflect the proportion of oxygen 18 found in the ocean water at the time they were formed.
   A. The only mention of rocks in the passage is a comparison of "gappiness" of the rock and sedimentary specimen records in lines 38-39; this information does not allow any firm inference to be made with respect to relative susceptibility to deterioration, though a more continuous record might be the result of less susceptibility to deterioration.
   B. The passage does not make any reference to the relative abundance of these shells during ice ages; no such inference can be drawn.
   C. The only information in the passage that might support this statement is found in lines 29-32, but that information, about the correlation between oxygen ratios in sediment specimens and land ice, describes a relation that implies nothing about distributions of such specimens.
   D. Though the passage does indirectly indicate that the shells contained radioactive material, nothing in the passage suggests that radioactive material is used to determine isotopic composition.
   E. Correct. The passage explains that oxygen atoms in the surrounding water are one of the building blocks of calcium carbonate shells. The isotopic composition of the surrounding water changes during the ice age cycles, so it is logical that the isotopic composition of the shells will change depending on when they were formed.
   The correct answer is E.

D

[解析] Main idea
   This question requires understanding what the passage as a whole is attempting to do. The passage opens by introducing two books published in 1984 that both concern the history of women in the United States. The passage then makes it clear that one book deals directly (line 15) with the issue of women's status, while the other does not. The passage then goes on to discuss the perspective that each book takes and what each book has to offer for an assessment of women's status in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
   A. The two books discussed in the passage do not take different sides on a particular debate but rather are described as being more or less useful to the debate itself.
   B. The passage focuses on how two different books contain information useful to a particular historiographical debate but does not call into question the approach of either book.
   C. The passage focuses on two authors' works, not one.
   D. Correct. The passage discusses what two different books have to offer in relation to a particular historiographical debate.
   E. The passage does not describe any perspective on a particular historiographical debate as being more prevalent than any other.
   The correct answer is D.

E

[解析] Evaluation
   Answering this question depends on understanding what role a particular piece of information plays in the passage as a whole. The author implicitly supports Lebsock's contention (beginning at line 20) that different frames of reference can produce different perspectives on the debate about women's status in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The author then summarizes different contexts cited by Lebsock to support the contention about frames of reference. As part of this summary, the author refers to supervising schools (lines 24-25) as an example of a job that apparently showed women losing power.
   A. The passage does not discuss the role of education in the nineteenth century.
   B. The passage does mention some ways in which, according to Lebsock, women.., gained power (lines 25-26) in the nineteenth cent, but supervising schools is not among them.
   C. The passage does not discuss the difficulty of obtaining data about particular occupations.
   D. The passage makes no judgments about the suitability for women of any jobs in the nineteenth century.
   E. Correct. The passage mentions supervising schools as part of an illustration of Lebsock's claim that the debate about women's status depends on the context being examined.
   The correct answer is E.

B

[解析] Supporting ideas
   Answering this question requires recognizing information explicitly given in the passage. The passage introduces the work of Lebsock in line 6 and then goes on to describe several characteristics of Lebsock's book. In lines 20-22, the author introduces Lebsock's claim that the historiographical debate about women's status is dependent on frame of reference and calls that claim important; the passage then gives an example showing how frame of reference affects views of women's status. In so doing, the author displays an implicit agreement with Lebsock's discussion on this point.
   A. The author of the passage portrays neither the place nor time period that Lebsock focuses on as having been neglected by historians.
   B. Correct. The author describes as important Lebsock's idea that frame of reference informs the debate about women's status.
   C. According to the passage, Lebsock's book deals with women's status in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, not the present status of women.
   D. The passage does not mention or imply that Lebsock analyzed statistics in writing her book.
   E. Although the passage does describe Lebsock's book as pertaining to an ongoing historiographical debate, it identifies the book's topic as women in one southern community (lines 7-8), not the life of a single woman.
   The correct answer is B.

D

[解析] Supporting ideas
   This question asks for recognition of information contained in the passage. In the first sentence, the passage states that Bud and Buel's work and Lebsock's work have contrasting approaches. The passage then proceeds, using descriptions of each work's approach, to illustrate how the works differ. The passage notes that Buel and Buel's work makes little effort to place its biographical subject in the context of recent historiography on women (lines 5-6), whereas Lebsock's work attempts to redirect two decades of historiographical debate about women's status.
   A. Primary sources are not mentioned in the passage in relation to either work discussed.
   B. The legal status of women is not mentioned in the passage.
   C. Lebsock's work is described in the passage as attempting to redirect the debate about women's status in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
   D. Correct. The passage suggests that by not placing its subject's story in the context of historiography, Bud and Bud's work does not therefore address larger historiographical issues, as Lebsock's does.
   E. The passage tends to support Lebsock's views and does not refer to any lack of support for the claims made in Lebsock's work.
   The correct answer is D.

C

Inference
   This question requires making an inference based on information given in the passage. As part of the passage's description of Lebsock's contribution to the historiographical debate about women's status in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Lebsock's conclusions about women's autonomy are described. As part of this description, the passage cites Lebsock's conclusion that nineteenth-century women lost economic autonomy when compared to eighteenth-century women (lines 17-20).
   A. The passage states that in many ways women in the nineteenth century lost power in relation to men (line 23), which would imply that in those respects eighteenth-century women had more power in relation to men, not less. The only increase mentioned in nineteenth-century women's power is associated with owning more real estate.
   B. The passage states that more nineteenth-century women owned real estate.
   C. Correct. As the passage states, Lebsock concluded that nineteenth-century women lost economic autonomy compared to eighteenth-century women.
   D. The passage states that nineteenth-century women gained more independence in their private lives.
   E. The passage cites school superintendents as an example of an occupation more likely to be held by eighteenth-century women.
   The correct answer is C.

C

[解析] Inference
   This question requires understanding what the passage implies. The approach that Buel and Buel's work takes is specifically described in lines 3-6 and again in lines 28-34. In lines 29-32, the passage states that Bud and Bud's work provides ample raw material for questioning the myth.., of a colonial golden age in the eighteenth century, referring to a myth about women's status. In describing this golden age as a myth fostered by some historians, the passage suggests that this era was not as favorable to women as these historians suggest.
   A. The passage describes Lebsock's work as providing such evidence, not Buel and Buel's work.
   B. The passage does not pertain to the level of concern women had for their status.
   C. Correct. The final paragraph of the passage describes Buel and Buel's work as providing material that calls into question claims that the eighteenth century was especially favorable to women.
   D. The passage refers to the economic autonomy of women in relation to Lebsock's work, not Buel and Buel's work.
   E. The passage does not refer to whether any particular occupations held by women were more respected at one time or another.
   The correct answer is C.

E

[解析] Inference
   To answer this question you need to understand the differences between WIDC and WTUL as they are described in the passage. The only information about WTUL in the passage is that it had stopped opposing restrictions on women's labor in the late 1880s, and that, because existing safety regulations were not being enforced, it supported the proposal to prohibit women from working in white lead factories. WIDC, on the other hand, was formed in 1892 specifically to oppose restrictions on women's labor, and it opposed the proposal.
   A. According to the passage, WIDC did believe that existing safety regulations, if enforced, could prevent lead poisoning. WTUL may or may not have believed that the safety regulations needed to be strengthened; all the passage states is that WTUL did not believe that the safety regulations were likely to be enforced.
   B. The passage states that WTUL believed that because there were no unions to pressure employers, the employers would not comply with safety regulations. The passage does not present any information on which to base a conclusion about WIDC's beliefs regarding union pressure on employers.
   C. Based on information in the passage, both WIDC and SPEW believed that enforcing safety regulations could protect women against lead poisoning. WIDC supported SPEW's position on the matter. WTUL believed that safety regulations were unlikely to be enforced because of the lack of unions.
   D. The passage states that WIDC viewed the proposal to restrict women's employment in white lead factories as an instance of legislation designed to limit women's work opportunities—precisely the legislation that WIDC was formed to oppose. Thus, WIDC was not primarily concerned with the factories' health conditions.
   E. Correct. WIDC began opposing legislative attempts to restrict women's labor in 1892 and continued to do so through at least 1895, when the Home Secretary proposed prohibiting women from working in white lead factories. WTUL stopped opposing restrictions on women's labor in the late 1880s, before WIDC was even founded. Thus, the passage suggests that WTUL had stopped opposing restrictions on women's labor well before WIDC worked to oppose such legislation.
   The correct answer is E.

A

[解析] Evaluation
   This question requires the reader to find a statement that would provide additional support for the contention made in the following statement: SPEW contended, and WIDC concurred, that controllable conditions in such factories were responsible for the development of lead poisoning. Information suggesting that when conditions were controlled, lead poisoning was less likely to develop would provide support for SPEW's contention.
   A. Correct. If incidences of lead poisoning were low in those factories that enforced hygiene and safety regulations, that would suggest that lead poisoning was not an inevitable result of working in a white lead factory—but rather that lead poisoning was the result of poor hygiene and safety practices.
   B. It would not be particularly surprising for the incidence of lead poisoning to be higher among women working in white lead factories than among women working in other kinds of factories—but such a finding would say nothing about whether controllable conditions had any effect on the development of lead poisoning.
   C. The existence of household sources of lead that might contribute to lead poisoning would weaken, not support, SPEW's contention that controllable factory conditions were responsible for the development of lead poisoning.
   D. If white lead factories enforced workplace safety regulations more stringently than did some other types of factories, it might be the case that SPEW's contention was incorrect: that even controlled conditions could not prevent a high incidence of lead poisoning.
   E. If the conditions typically found in white lead factories were particularly bad with regard to safety and hygiene, it could conceivably be the case that SPEW's contention was true—that is, that the conditions that caused lead poisoning were controllable. But it might also be the case that an uncontrollable aspect of those conditions caused lead poisoning. THUS, this neither supports nor undermines SPEW's contention clearly.
   The correct answer is A.

B

[解析] Main idea
   Answering this question depends on identifying the overall point of the passage. The passage is mainly concerned with explaining the reasons behind the positions taken by WIDC and SPEW, which opposed the proposal to enact legislation prohibiting women from holding most white lead factory jobs, and the reasoning of WTUL, which supported the proposal.
   A. The passage explains how WIDC viewed the proposal, but it does not indicate what any of the groups believed about the motivations of the Home Secretary, who made the proposal.
   B. Correct. The passage contrasts the reasoning of the WIDC and SPEW, both of which believed that enforcing safety regulations would make the proposed legislation unnecessary, with the reasoning of WTUL, which thought that safety regulations were unlikely to be enforced and thus supported the proposal.
   C. The passage simply states that the proposal was eventually enacted; it does not trace the process by which this occurred.
   D. The passage implies that WIDC and SPEW were unsuccessful in their opposition to the proposed legislation, but it identifies only one tactic used in opposition to it: SPEW's attempt to challenge it by investigating the causes of lead poisoning.
   E. The passage does not evaluate the groups' arguments concerning the proposed legislation; rather, it presents those arguments without comment on their quality or value.
   The correct answer is B.