Ⅰ. Fill in the blank in each of the following sentences with the correct form of a word according to the clue given in parentheses following the sentence.
1. Jurgen Habermas represents the second wave of Critical Theory. He was not a ______ of the other members of the Frankfurt school. However, he is included in the school of thought because his work continues the critique that the others began. (contemporary)
2. Where Marx supposed the move to be linear (one step at a time in a straight line), and deterministic, (with a known end), Habermas said it was ______. (predict)
4. It was not a house, not even a squatter's hut. He thought everybody lived far too elaborately, expensively, anxiously. What ______ is a house? No one needs privacy: natural acts are not shameful. (good)
5. Phenomenology emphasizes the subjective experience of the individual. It assumes that "existence precedes essence"; where ______ is subjective experience and essence is human nature. (exist)
6. The existentialists focused on the ______ experience of he individual, especially feelings of dread and anxiety in the face of one's inherent aloneness and limitation—the ultimate limitation being death. (subject)
7. Due to his intense concern with the individual, it also may be incorrect to label Rogers a humanist. Some would say that ______ emphasizes the importance of pro-social behavior, not actualization of oneself, and it is not clear that these two things are one and the same. (humanism)
10. Lord Justice Kay said: "This resulted from the failure of the pathologist to ______ with other doctors investigating the cause of death information that a competent pathologist ought to have appreciated needed to be assessed before any conclusion was reached." (share)
share
[解析] 此处为不定式结构，to后面需跟动词share：分享。
11. The universities have ______ the intellectual pioneers of our civilization—the priests, the lawyers, the statesmen, the doctors, the men of science and the men of letters. (train)
trained
[解析] 现在完成时，助动词have后需加动词train的过去分词形式。
12. In he natural world, a sustained pattern of balance or steady-state is characteristic of all healthy and ______ ecosystem. (endure)
13. Mrs. Clark, the daughter of a senior police officer, was ______ at Chester Crown Court in November 1999 of smothering her son Christopher in December 1996, when he was 11 weeks old, and Harry, who was eight weeks old, in January 1998. (convict)
14. Mrs. Clark, ______ in a black woolen cardigan and dark grey trousers, appealed for privacy so that she could rebuild her and her family's lives. (dress)
15. Most of the problems in physics can't be solved exactly in closed form. Therefore we have to learn technology for making clever ______, such as power series expansions, saddle pint integration, and small (or large) perturbations. (approximate)
16. He is being investigated by the General Medical Council after it emerged that he ______ to reveal to the defense the results of tests which showed the child's spinal fluid was infected with high levels of the staphylococcus aureus bacteria. (failure)
failed
[解析] 句意：医务委员会对他进行了调查。该儿童进行了测试，结果表明其脑脊液重度感染staphylococcus aureus bacteria，而他未向防疫部门报告此检测结果。fail to do：未能，做某事失败，此系固定表达。
17. For better or ______, religion is the only human endeavor that successfully provides us with an all-encompassing model of the pattern which connects our individual lives to the complex regularities of this world, and by extension of the cosmos. (bad)
worse
[解析] 句意：宗教能为我们提供包罗万象的模式，将我们个人的生命与复杂的世界规律、甚至宇宙规律联系在一起。无论怎样，宗教是人类唯一一次成功尝试。for better or worse：无论怎样，此系固定表达。
18. If such figures are sustained in more detailed polling, Mr. Bush will have ______ in reversing sliding domestic support for war with Iraq. (success)
success
[解析] 句意：如果在更为明细的民意投票中取得这样的票数，布什总统可以成功地扭转国内支持因对伊战争而下滑的局面。此处需要一名词做have的宾语。have success in doing something：成功做某事，此系固定表达。
19. Analytic geometry is the ______ of algebra with geometry. Geometric objects such as conic sections, planes and spheres are studied by the means of algebraic equations. Vectors in Cartesian, polar and spherical coordinates are introduced. (marry)
20. By contrast, the good ideas are ______ from the faculty of the understanding—or reason—and roughly involve either mathematical demonstration or factual predictions. (derive)
derived
[解析] 句意：与此相反，好的想法来源于理解能力——或推理能力——这大致包括数学实证或者实证预测。
Ⅱ. Please read the following short passages, and answer the questions that follow as briefly as you can.
Passage 1 He is often described as the first pure mathematician. He is an extremely important figure in the development of mathematics yet we know relatively little about his mathematical achievements. Unlike many later Greek mathematicians, where at least we have some of the books which they wrote, we have nothing of his writings. Questions:
1. Who of the following figures do you think is being described? ______
2. From this you can infer that the most relevant answer to the topic is ______.
A.a lot has been written about him
B.little has been written about him
C.he wrote nothing
D.he might have written something
A B C D
C
[解析] 文中最后一句：we have nothing of his writings，由此我们可以推测出C。
Passage 2 Our words are amalgams of some sound and meaning, and put in some order to express our feelings, thoughts, information, beliefs and so on, for different purposes in life. We also understand others by interpreting their words, which may involve certain background knowledge, perspectives, and affected by many factors, which he thinks are not amenable to scientific studies. Questions:
2. From this you can infer that language use can be approached scientifically ______.
A.very easily
B.not very easily
C.without any possibility
D.in some conditions
A B C D
C
[解析] 最后一句提到，乔姆斯基认为语言“are not amenable to scientific studies”。此句中，amenable：经得起检验的，经得起批评的，经得起评论的，因此选C。
Passage 3 God, having designed man for a sociable creature, made him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society. Man, therefore, had by nature his organs so fashioned, as to be fit to frame articulate sounds, which we call words. But this was not enough to produce language; for parrots, and several other birds, will be taught to make articulate sounds distance enough, which yet by no means are capable of language. Questions:
1. The word articulate can be understood as ______.
Passage 4 Besides these names which stand for ideas, there be other words which men make use of, not to signify any idea, but the want or absence of some ideas, simple or complex, or all ideas together; such as are Nihil in Latin, and in English, ignorance and barrenness. All which negative or privative words cannot be said properly to belong to, or signify no ideas: for then they would be perfectly insignificant sounds; but they relate to positive ideas, and signify their absence. Questions:
[解析] A：所有的词都表达某个观点。B：有些词表示某些事物的缺失或不存在。C：名字不算语言。D：词语不重要。文中提到有些词语人们用来“not to signify any idea，but the want or absence of some ideas, ...”。由此我们只能推测出B。
Passage 5 Mrs. Clark, dressed in a black woolen cardigan and dark grey trousers, appealed for privacy so that she could rebuild her and her family's lives. "Being separated from my husband for so long has been a living hell," she said. "Being deprived of more than three years of being a mum to our little boy has been even worse. And yet somehow, despite our separation and against all the odds, we have managed to remain a family and stay close. My little boy knows that he has a mummy and daddy who love him very much, and that's what counts." Questions:
1. According to the passage, Mrs. Clark's family life has been ______.
A.adversely affected
B.damaged
C.maintained without any problem
D.robbed
A B C D
C
[解析] A：感情不和。B：遭破坏。C：毫无问题，继续维持。D：被抢劫。文中提到“...despite our separation and against all the odds，we have managed to remain a family and stay close”，因此此题选C。
2. From this passage you can infer that Mrs. Clark has been ______.
Passage 6 The most puzzling and intriguing moving things visible to humans have always been the Sun, the Moon, the planets and the stars we can see in the night sky. Newton's new calculus, combined with his "Laws of Motion", made a mathematical model for the force of gravity that not only described the observed motions of planets and stars in the night sky, but also of swinging weights and flying cannonballs in England. Questions:
Passage 7 The greatest part of words are general terms. All things that exist being particulars, it may perhaps be thought reasonable that words, which ought to be conformed to things, should be so too, I mean in their signification, but yet we find quite the contrary. The far greatest part of words that make all languages are general terms which has not been the effect of neglect or chance, but of reason and necessity. Questions:
1. According to the passage, human language is rich with ______.
A.particular words
B.polysemous words
C.monosemous words
D.general terms
A B C D
D
[解析] A：特指词，B：多义词，C：单义词，D：表示总称的词。文中第一句就说到“The greatest part of words are general terms”。此题选D。
2. From this passage you can infer that general terms exist ______.
A.out of necessity
B.out of reason
C.both A and B
D.out of neglect
A B C D
C
[解析] 文中最后一句中提到“which has not been the effect of neglect or chance, but of reason and necessity”，not...but...不是……而是……，因此此题选C。
Passage 8 Today the functions of theory and observation are divided into two distinct communities in physics. Both experiments and theories are much more complex than back in Newton's time. Theorists are exploring areas of Nature in mathematics that technology so far does not allow us to observe in experiments. Many of the theoretical physicists who are alive today may not live to see how the real Nature compares with the mathematical description in their work. Today's theorists have to learn to live with ambiguity and uncertainty in their mission to describe Nature using math. Questions:
1. According to the passage, today's experiments and theories in physics are ______.
4. "real Nature" could be best understood as ______.
A.the natural environment
B.things as they used to be
C.nature in contrast to culture
D.things as they are
A B C D
D
[解析] real Nature：事物的本质。A：自然环境，B：事物过去的样子，C：与文化相对的自然，D：事物的真实面貌。
Passage 9 The shift from the second industrial wave towards the information age has a critical implication: nations have to make a break from existing regulations and adopt a new regulatory environment allowing full competition and decentralized initiatives. The task ahead is vast and delicate, but the objective is not to start from scratch again and build a completely new regulatory framework. Fortunately for the regulator, most of the existing regulations remain relevant. Questions:
1. According to the passage, today's business environment calls for ______.
3. "start from scratch" could best be understood as ______.
A.a completely new thing
B.scratch because of itching
C.begin to fight
D.from start to end
A B C D
A
[解析] start from scratch: start from the very beginning从头或重新开始，A：全新的事物，B：由于痒而抓、挠，C：开始战斗，D：从头至尾。
Passage 10 Voluntary agreements by the private actors commit only to the objective but remain free to choose any means. This method is more and more often used in the United States. It meets the American "institutional idea" namely it limits the role of government as much as possible, and is conceptually backed by simple argumentation: only business is flexible enough to adapt to a rapidly evolving, unpredictable environment. For this reason, business is ready to take responsibility, in order to avoid binding regulations; government regards business as being capable of more flexibility and efficiency; and the American public doesn't find anything unusual in such a deal. Questions:
1. According to the passage, ______.
A.private actors are constrained with means set up by the government
B.government has more and more authority
C.business has more autonomy
D.government is not efficient
A B C D
C
[解析] A：私人演员受政府规定方法的限制，B：政府权力越来越大，C：商业有越来越多的自主性，D：政府低效。文中说到“only business is flexible enough to adapt to a rapidly evolving, unpredictable environment”，即只有商业能够尽快适应快速的变化以及难以预测的环境。由此可知，商业有很大的自主性。
2. From this passage you can infer that ______.
A.the United States is a decentralized country
B.the United States is a free market economy country
Ⅲ. Read the following four short passages and two longer pieces before doing the questions as required.
Passage 1 U. S. Ambassador to the United Nations, John Bolton, has resigned. Analysts say Bolton was unable to satisfy Senate opponents, who were concerned he would pursue a unilateral U. S. foreign policy. And his post became even more tenuous after Democrats took control of Congress in November elections. Bolton had a history of angering diplomats and colleagues in his previous State Department job. And he could not gain sufficient support from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee to stay on. He is to leave the U. N. post when the current session of the U. S. Congress ends, possible at the end of the week. Bush appointed Bolton in August 2005 to reform the world body. But Bolton is leaving at a time when U. S. foreign policy is fraught with global challenges. Questions:
1. Why has John Bolton resigned?
The reason for his leaving was, according to analysts, that he was unable to satisfy Senate opponents, and when the Democrats took control of Congress, his job became more tenuous. It was also because he had a history of angering diplomats and colleagues in his previous State Department job, and therefore he couldn't gain sufficient support from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee to stay on.
Passage 2 In the Iraqi capital of Bagahdad, the trail of Saddam Hussein on charges of genocide against the kurds continues. If convicted the former Iraqi leader could get a second death penalty on top of the one he received after his, conviction in the Dujail trial. Saddam and his 6 co-defendants were present to hear the Anfal case on Monday. The prosecution claims about 180,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in a crackdown between 1987—1988. Many of them were killed by poison gas or in massacre. One Kurdish witness says more tan 350 people from his village were killed or deported during operation Anfal. In past sessions, the court has heard testimonies from four American forensic experts. They submitted what they had found as evidence when examining the remains of Kurds in several mass graves from both northern and southern Iraq. On Sunday, Saddam's lawyers formally appealed against the death sentence on the former leader of crimes against humanity for part in the Dujail killings. Questions:
1. How many death penalties has Saddam Hussein already received?
2. How man of Saddam Hussein's co-defendants were tried on Monday?
6。
[解析] 原文明确表示：Saddam and his 6 co-defendants were present to hear the Anfal case on Monday.
3. Why was Saddam Hussein charged with crimes against humanity?
The prosecution claims about 180,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in a crackdown between 1987-1988. many of them were killed by poison gas or in massacres.
Passage 3 By the end of the first half next year, 15 travel agencies in mainland will be able to send tourism groups to Taiwan. Aithough the schedule is yet to be set, the registration in Guangzhou is already heating on. Authority says in the beginning of Taiwan's tourism opening, the market supply will hardly meet the demand. A lot of mainland citizens are expressing their fervent hope for an early visit to the beautiful island. Two travel agencies in Guangzhou will be authorized to send tourists to Taiwan, and the procedure will be very much alike to tourism to Hong Kong and Macau. Further details concerning airliners and entry ports are still under discussion. The price for 6—7 days travel are estimated to be around 8,000 Yuan, 9—10 days travel around the island will cost up to 10,000 Yuan. Some business travel can be as cheap as 4,000. Questions:
1. How many travel agencies in other places than Guangdong will be authorized to send mainland citizens to Taiwan next year?
2. Why will the market supply hardly meet the demand?
This is because it's just the beginning of Taiwan's tourism opening to the mainland, while a lot of mainland citizens are expressing their fervent hope for an early visit to the beautiful island
3. Have the details concerning airliners and entry ports already been known?
Not yet.
[解析] 文中提到，further details concerning airliners and entry ports are still under discussion，进一步的细节尚在讨论之中。
Passage 4 Since China announced its first HIV case more than twenty years ago, the country has moved from silence to brave assertions. And it has pushed itself to do more in the fight against the spreading epidemic. Chinese scientists announced that their research and development of HIV treatment has been developing. This bit of encouraging news was released by the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology. Scientists say, over the past two years, China has successfully produced five of the 26 antiretroviral drags currently used as part of an already-established "Cocktail Therapy". The quality and effects of the drugs are to international standards. Chinese scientists have also worked out an optimal treatment plan for Chinese HIV patients. But they say there is a lack of qualified health workers who can guide HIV patients on taking their prescribed medication. Questions:
1. When was the first HIV case found in China?
20 years ago.
[解析] 文章开头便说，“Since China announced its first HIV case more than twenty years ago, ...”，由此可见，中国第一例艾滋病毒感染病例是于20多年前发现的。 本文介绍的是中国HIV病防治研究的新进展。
2. How did China respond to its first HIV case?
China was silent.
[解析] 文中所用表述为：China has moved from silence to brave assertions。由此可见，中国最初的态度是保持沉默。
3. What achievements have Chinese scientists made in their research of HIV treatment?
Chinese scientists announced they had made development and over the past two years, they had successfully produced 5 of the 26 anti-retroviral drugs currently used as part of and already-established "Cocktail Therapy", and the quality and effects of the drugs are to international standards. They have also worked out an optimal treatment plan for Chinese patients.
4. What is greatly needed in the optimal treatment plan for Chinese HIV patients?
There is a lack of qualified health workers who can guide HIV patients on taking their prescribed medication.
Passage 5 In its modem form the concept of "literature" did not emerge earlier than eighteenth century and was not fully developed until the nineteenth century. Yet the conditions for its emergence had been developing since the Renaissance. The word itself came into English use in the fourteenth century, following French and Latin precedents; its root was Latin littera, a letter of the alphabet. Litterature, in the common early spelling, was then in effect a condition of reading: of being able to read and of having read. It was often close to the sense of modem literacy, which was not in the language until the late nineteenth century, its introduction in part made necessary by the movement of literature to a different sense. The normal adjective associated with literature was literate. Literary appeared in the sense of reading ability and experience in the seventeenth century, and did not acquire its specialized modem meaning until the eighteenth century. Literature as a new category was then a specialization of the area formerly categorized as rhetoric and grammar: a specialization to reading and, in the material context of the development of printing, to the printed word and especially the book, It was eventually to become a more general category than poetry or the earlier poesy, which had been general terms for imaginative composition, but which in relation to the development of literature became predominantly specialized, from the seventeenth century, to metrical composition and especially written and printed metrical composition. But literature was never primarily the active composition—the "making" —which poetry had described. As reading rather than writing, it was a category of different kind. The characteristic use can be seen in Bacon "learned in all literature and erudition, divine and humane" —and as late as Johnson "he had probably more than common literature, as his son addresses him in one of his most elaborate Latin poems." Literature, that is to say, was a category of use an condition rather than of production. It was a particular specialization of what had hitherto been seen as an activity or practice, and a specialization, in the circumstances, which was inevitably made in terms of social class. In its first extended sense, beyond the bare sense of "literacy" it was a definition of "polite" or "humane" learning, and thus specified a part interacted with a persist end emphasis on "literature" as reading in the "classical" languages. But still, in his first stage, into the eighteenth century, literature was primarily a generalized social concept, expressing a certain (minority) level of educational achievement. This carded with it a potential and eventually realized alternative definition of literature as "printed books": the objects in and through which this achievement was demonstrated. It is important that, within the terms of this development, literature normally included all printed books. There was not necessary specialization to "imaginative" works. Literature was still primarily reading ability and experience, and this included philosophy, history, and essays as well as poems. Were the new eighteenth century novels literature? That question was first approached, not by definition of their mode or content, but by reference to the standards of "polite" or "humane" learning. Was drama literature? This question was to exercise successive generations, not because of any substantial difficulty but because of the practical limits of he category. If literature was reading, could a mode written for spoken performance be said to be literature, and if not, where was Shakespeare? At one level the definition indicated by this development has persisted. Literature lost its earliest sense of reading ability and reading experience, and became an 'apparently objective category, of printed works of a certain quality. The concerns of a "literary editor" a "literary supplement" would still be defined in this way. But three complicating tendencies can then be distinguished: first, a shift from "learning" to "taste" or "sensibility" as a criterion defining literary quality; second, an increasing specialization of literature to "creative" or "imaginative" works; third, a development of the concept of "tradition" within national terms, resulting in the more effective definition of "a national literature". The source of each of these tendencies can be discerned from the Renaissance, but it was in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that they came through most powerfully, until they became, in the twentieth century, in effect receive assumptions. Questions.
1. When did the modern concept of "literature" emerge? ______
A.In the seventeenth century.
B.In the eighteenth century.
C.In the nineteenth century.
D.In the twentieth century,
A B C D
B
[解析] 文中第一句提到“did not emerge earlier than the eighteenth century”，因此，“literature”到了十八世纪才有了我们现在所理解的概念。 本文介绍的是英文literature一词的来源、内涵演变的过程。
2. What did literature mean in its earliest sense? ______
A.Reading ability.
B.Reading ability and experience.
C.Writing ability.
D.Reading and writing.
A B C D
B
[解析] 文中第5行提到该词最早表示的是一种状态：有阅读的能力并且曾经读过书。
3. What is the earliest adjective associated with literature? ______
A.literary.
B.Literate.
C.Literacy.
D.Literal.
A B C D
B
[解析] 第一段倒数第二句：The normal adjective associated with literature was literate.
4. What challenged the definition of literature as reading in the eighteenth century? ______
A.The emergence of novels.
B.The emergence of dramas.
C.The emergence of poems
D.The emergence of essay.
A B C D
B
[解析] 文中第三段开头提到literature的含义中已经了所有出版的书，这其中包括哲学、历史、散文以及诗歌。因此排除选项C、D。文中提到“Was drama literature?...If literature was reading, could a mode written for spoken performance be said to be literature, and if not，where was Shakespeare?”如果文学是指阅读，那么戏剧这种记录言语行为的行事是否可以被看做阅读的一种呢?由此可见，此处对literature的含义提出了挑战。
5. Which of the following can best serve as the title of this passage? ______
A.The Development of the Concept of Literature
B.The Development of Modern Concept of Literature.
Passage 6 Most of us raised to think about history in the traditional way would read an account of a Revolutionary War battle written by an American historian in 1944 and ask, if we asked anything at all, "Is this account accurate?" or "What does this battle tell us about the 'the spirit of the age' in which it was fought?" In contrast, a new historicist would read the same account of that battle and ask, "What does this account tell us about the political agendas and ideological conflicts of the culture that produced and read the account in 1944?" New historical interest in the battle itself would produce such questions as, "At the time in which it was fought, how was this battle represented (in newspapers, magazines, tracts, government documents, stories, speeches, drawings, and photographs) by the American colonies or by Britain (or by European countries), and what do these representations tell us about how the American Revolution shaped and was shaped by the cultures that represented it?" As you can see, the questions asked by traditional historians and by new historicists are quite different, and that's because these two approaches to history are based on very different views of what history is and how we can know it. Traditional historians ask, "What happened?" and "What does the event tell us about history?" In contrast, new historicists ask, "How has the event been interpreted?" and "What do the interpretations tell us about he interpreters?" For most traditional historians, history is a series of events that have a linear, causal relationship: event A caused event B; event B caused event C; and so on. Furthermore, they believe we are perfectly capable, through objective analysis, of uncovering the facts about historical events, and those facts can sometimes reveal the spirit of the age, that is, the world view held by the culture to which those facts refer. Indeed, some of the most popular traditional historical accounts have offered a key concept that would explain the world view of a given historical population, such as the Renaissance notion of the Great Chain of Being the cosmic hierarchy of creation, with God at the top of the ladder, human beings at the middle, and the lowliest creatures at the bottom—which has been used to argue that the guiding spirit of Elizabethan culture was a belief in the importance of order in all domains of human life. You can see this aspect of the traditional approach in history classed that study past events in terms of the spirit of an age, such as the Age Reason or the Age of Enlightenment, and you can see it in literature Classes that study literary works in terms of historical periods, such as the Neoclassical, Romantic, or Modernist periods. Finally, traditional historians generally believe that history is progressive, that the' human species is improving over the source of time, advancing in its moral, cultural, and technological accomplishments. New historicists, in contrast, don't believe we have clear access to any but he most basic facts of history. We can know, for example, that George Washington was the first American president and that Napoleon was defeated Waterloo. But our understanding of what such facts mean, of how they fit within the complex web of competing ideologies and conflicting social, political, and cultural agendas of the time and place in which they occurred is, for new historicists, strictly a matter of interpretation, not fact. Even when traditional historians believe they are sticking to the facts, the way they contextualize those facts (including which facts are deemed important enough to report and which are left out) determines what story those facts will tell. From this perspective, there is no such thing as a presentation of facts; there is only interpretation. Furthermore, new historicists argue that reliable interpretations are, for a number of reasons, difficult to produce. The first and most important reason for this difficulty, new historicists believe, is the impossibility of objective analysis. Like all human beings, historians live in a particular time and place, and their views of both current and past events are influenced in innumerable conscious and unconscious ways by their own experience within their own culture. Historians may believe they're objective, but their own views of what is right and wrong, what is civilized and uncivilized, what is important and unimportant, an the like, will strongly influence the ways in which they interpret events. For example, the traditional view that history is progressive is based on the belief, held in past by many Anglo-European historians, that the sol-called "primitive" cultures of native peoples are less evolved than, and therefore inferior to, the so-called "civilized" Anglo-European cultures. As a result, ancient cultures with highly developed art forms, ethical codes, and spiritual philosophies, such as the tribal cultures of Native Americans and Africans, were often misrepresented as lawless, superstitious, and savage. Another reason for the difficulty in producing reliable interpretations of history is its complexity. For new historicists, history cannot be understood simply as a linear progression of events. At any given point in history, any given culture may be progressing in some areas and regressing in other. And any two historians may disagree about what constitutes progress and what doesn't, for these terms are matters of definition. That is, history isn't an orderly parade into a continually improving future, as many traditional historians have believed. It's more like an improvised dance consisting of an infinite variety of steps, following any new route at any given moment, and having no particular goal or destination. Individuals and groups may have goals, but human history does not. Similarly, while events certainly have causes, new historicists argue that those causes are usually all multiple, complex, and difficult to analyze. One cannot make simple causal statements with any certainty. In addition, causality is not a one-way street from cause to effect. Any given event whether it be a political election or a children's cartoon show is a product of its culture, but it also affects that culture in return. In other words, all events including everything from the creation of an art work, to televised murder thai, to the persistence of or change in the condition of the poor are shaped by and shape the culture in which they emerge. In a similar manner, our subjectivity, or selfhood, is shaped by and shapes the culture into which we were born. For most new historicists, our individual identity is not merely a product of society. Neither is it merely a product of our own individual will and desire. Instead, individual identity and its cultural milieu inhabit, reflect, and define each other. Their relationship is mutually constitutive (they create each other) and dynamically unstable. Thus, the old argument between determinism and free will can't be settled because it rests on the wrong question: "Is human identity socially determined or are human beings free agents?" For new historicism, this question cannot be answered because it involves a choice between two entities that are not wholly separate. Rather, the proper question is, "What are the processes by which individual identity and social formations—such as political, educational, legal, and religious institutions and ideologies—create, promote, change each other?" For every society constrains individual thought and action within a network of cultural limitations while it simultaneously enables individuals to think and act. Our subjectivity, than, is a lifelong process of negotiating our way, consciously and unconsciously, among the constraints and freedoms offered, at any given moment in time, by the society in which we live. Thus, according to new historicists, poser does not emanate from the top of the political and socioeconomic structure. According to French philosopher Michel Foucault, whose ideas have strongly influenced the development of new historicism, power circulates in all directions, to and from mall social levels, at all time. And the vehicle by which power circulates is a never-ending proliferation of exchange (1) the exchange of material goods through such practices as buying and selling, bartering, gambling, taxation, charity, and various forms of theft; (2) the exchange of people through such institutions as marriage, adoptions, kidnapping, and slavery; and (3) the exchange of ideas through the various discourses a culture produces. A discourse is a social language created by particular cultural conditions at a particular time and place, and it expresses a particular way of understanding human experience. For example, you may be familiar with the discourse of white supremacy, the discourse of ecological awareness, the discourse of Christian fundamentalism, and the like. Although the word discourse has roughly the same meaning as the word ideology, and the two words are often used interchangeably, the word discourse draws attention to the role of language as the vehicle of ideology. From a new historicist perspective, no discourse, by itself, can adequately explain the complex cultural dynamics of social power. For there is no monolithic (single, unified, universal) spirit of an age, and there is no adequate totalizing explanation of history (an explanation that provides a single key to all aspects of a given culture). There is, instead, a dynamic unstable interplay among discourses: they are always in a state of flux, overlapping and competing with one another (or, to use new historical terminology, negotiating exchanges of power) in any number of ways at any given point in time. Furthermore, no discourse is permanent. Discourses wield power for those in charge, but they also stimulate opposition to that power. This is one reason why new historicists believe that the relationship between individual identity and society is mutually constitutive: on the whole, human beings are never merely victims of an oppressive society, for they can find various ways to oppose authority in their personal and public live. For new historians, even the dictator of a small country doesn't wield absolute power on his own. To maintain dominance, his power must circulate in numerous discourses, for example, in the discourse of religion (which can promote belief in the "divine right" of kings or in God's love of hierarchical society), in the discourse of science (which can support the reigning elite in terms of a theory of Darwinian "survival of the fittest"), in the discourse Of fashion (which can promote the popularity of leaders by promoting copycat attire, as we saw when Hehru jackets wee popular and when the fashion world copied the style of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy), in the discourse of the law (which can make it treasonous offense to disagree with a ruler's decisions), and so on. As these examples suggest, what is "right", "natural," and "normal" are matters of definition. Thus, in different cultures at different points in history, homosexuality has been deemed abnormal, normal, criminal, or admirable. The same can be said of incest, cannibalism, and women's desire for political equality. In fact, Michel Foucault ahs suggested that all definitions of "insanity, crime", and sexual "perversion" are social constructs by means of which ruling powers maintain their control. We accept these definitions as "natural" only because they are so ingrained in our culture. Justas definitions of social and anti-social behavior promote the power of certain individuals and groups, so do particular versions of historical events. Certainly, the whitewashing of General Guster's new infamous military campaigns against Native Americans served the desire of the white American power structure of his day to obliterate Native American peoples so that the government could seize their lands. And that same whitewashing continued to serve the white American power structure for many a decade beyond Guster's time, for even those who had knowledge of Guster's misdeeds deemed it unwise to air America's dirty historical laundry, even in front of Americans. Analogously, had the Nazi won World War Ⅱ, we would all be reading a very different account of the war, and of the genocide of millions of Jews, than the accounts we read in American history books today. Thus, new historicism views historical accounts as narrative, as stories, that are inevitably biased according to the point of view, conscious or unconscious, of those who them .The more unaware historians are of their biases that is, the more "objective" they think they are the more those biases are able to control their narratives. Tell whether the following statements are True or False according to the text. Write True or False only.
1. When reading an account of a historical event in a traditional way, we are always concerned with the accuracy of the account of that event.
对 错
B
[解析] 文章开头就提到，我们会问到诸如“Is this account accurate?”或者“What does this battle tell us about 'the spirit of the age' in which it was fought?”之类的问题，而不仅仅是文献的准确性。 本文主要就新旧两派历史学家的不同观点进行了对比。两派历史学家关注的内容不同，对于“什么是历史”和“如何了解历史”的回答不同。传统历史学家认为历史沿直线发展；而新历史学家认为除了最基本的事实我们永远无法得知最客观的历史，且历史事件之间的关系是复杂的。
2. When reading an account of a historical event, new historicists show their interest not only in the accuracy of the account of that event but also in the way in which that event was represented.
4. To new historicists, interpretations of a historical event always vary with the interpreters.
对 错
A
[解析] 第五段第一句，新历史学家相信the impossibility of objective analysis，即：绝对客观的不可能性这是因为，历史学家都是生活在特定的时间环境，他们对当时以及过去的看法总会有意识或无意识地收到自身经历与文化的影响，所以不可能做到绝对客观。
5. Traditional historians believe that we can analyze historical events objectively.
对 错
A
[解析] 第三段：...they believe we are perfectly capable, through objective analysis, of uncovering the facts about historical events, .... (即：他们认为，我们完全有可能通过客观分析来揭示历史事实)。因此此题正确。
6. A history class that studies past events in terms of the spirit of an age sees history as a series of events that have a causal relationship.
对 错
A
[解析] 第三段：...and those facts can sometimes reveal the spirit of the age...，因此进行该历史课堂沿袭的是传统分析方法，传统历史学家认为“history is a series of events that have a linear, causal relationship”。
7. New historicists believe that nothing of history is accessible.
对 错
B
[解析] 第四段：New historicists, in contrast, don't believe we have access to any but the most basic facts of history。由此可见，新历史学家认为对于某些最基本的历史事实我们还是可以了解的。
8. Traditional historians believe that there is no presentation but only interpretation of facts.
对 错
B
[解析] 第四段一直是在分析新历史学家的观点，而从该段最后一句“From this perspective, there is no such thing as a presentation of facts; there is only interpretation. (从这个角度来看，根本就不存在所谓的史实呈现，而只有史实分析)”可知，这应该是新历史学家的观点。
9. New historicists believe that the distinction between "primitive" cultures and "civilized" cultures is a matter of interpretation.
对 错
A
[解析] 第五段，新历史学家认为，“...will strongly influence the ways in which they interpret events”，即对于他们看待问题的观点会影响他们解释历史的方式。
10. Many traditional historians believe that human history has no goal because history is not an orderly parade into a continually improving future.
对 错
B
[解析] 根据第六段第五句“That is, history isn't an orderly parade into a continually improving future, as many traditional historians have believed(也就是说，历史并非如一些传统历史学家所认为的就像秩序井然的游行一样持续发展)”，由此可以判断这应该是新历史学家的观点。
11. Traditional historians believe that all events are influenced by an influence the culture in which they occur.
12. New historicists believe that the individual can shape and is always shaped by the society in which he lives.
对 错
A
[解析] 根据第八段第一句话，新历史学家认为，“In a similar manner, our subjectivity, or selfhood, is shaped by and shapes the culture into which we were born”，并且后面几句也提到“they shape each other”，此处分析的便是新历史学家眼中的人与文化环境。
13. New historicists believe that power circulates in exchanges of material goods, people, and ideas.
对 错
A
[解析] 第九段：According to...whose ideas have strongly influenced the development of new historicism, power circulates in all directions, to and from all social levels, at all times，即：在法国哲学家Michel Foucault看来，力量的转化是多方向的，可以在任何时间、社会的任何阶层之间相互转化，而他的这一观点对新历史学家曾有过很大的影响。由此可见此题正确。
14. New historicists believe that discourses can produce power and opposition to power.
对 错
A
[解析] 第十一段，Discourses wield power for those in charge, but they also stimulate opposition to that power。Wield：行使，运用，支配：有效地行使、运用(如权力或影响)。因此此题正确。
15. New historicists believe that nobody but the dictator of a small country can wield absolute power on his own.
对 错
B
[解析] 第十二段：For new historians, even the dictator of a small country doesn't wield absolute power on his own，即：“在新历史学家看来，即使是某个小国的独裁者也不可能是他一人完全不受其他因素影响地行使权力。”因此此题不正确。
16. New historicists believe that nothing can be permanently normal and absolutely right.
对 错
A
[解析] 第十三段：what is "right", "natural", and "normal" are matters of definition，即：所谓的“正确”、“自然”、“正常”，都是主观界定的。因此，此题正确。
17. New historicists see historical accounts as narrative because no account of a historical event can be absolutely objective.
对 错
A
[解析] 最后一段：new historicism views historical accounts as narrative, as stories, that are inevitably biased according to the point of view, .... 此题与原文相符。
Ⅳ. Read the following passage and be ready to answer the questions based on the passage.
On the Relation between Art and Society Theodor Adorno
Aesthetic refraction is as incomplete without the retracted object as imagination is without the imagined object. This has special significance for the problem of the inherent functionality of art. Tied to the real world, art adopts the principle Of self-preservation of that world, turning it into the idem of self-identical art, the essence of which Schonberg once summed up in the statement that the painter paints a picture rather than what it represent. Implied here is the idea that every work of art spontaneously aims at being identical with itself, just as in the world outside a fake identity is everywhere forcibly imposed on objects by the insatiable subject. Aesthetic identity is different, however, in one important respect: it meant to assist the non-identical in its struggle against the repressive identification compulsion that rules the outside world. It is by virtue of its separation from empirical reality that the work of art can become a being of a higher order, fashioning the relation between the whole and its parts in accordance with its own needs. Works of art are after-images or replicas of empirical life, inasmuch as they proffer to the latter what in the-outside world is being denied them. In the process they slough off a repressive, external-empirical mode of experiencing the artist, it must be kept in mind that works of art are alive, have a life sui generic①. Their life is more than just an outside fate. Over time, great works reveal new facets of themselves, they age, they become rigid, and they die. Being human artifacts, they do not "live" in the same sense as human beings. Of course not. To put he accent on the art factual aspect in works of art seems to imply that the way in which they came to be is important. It is not. The emphasis must be on their inner constitution. They have life because they speak in ways nature an man cannot. They talk because there is communication between their individual constituents, which cannot be said of things that exist in a state of mere diffusion. As artifacts, works of art communicate not only internally but also with the external reality which they try to get away from and which none the less is the substratum of their content. Art negates the conceptualization foisted on the real world and yet harbors in its own substance elements of the empirically existent. Assuming that one has to differentiate form and content before grasping their mediation; we can say that art's opposition to the real world is in the realm of form; but this occurs, generally speaking, in a mediated way such that aesthetic form is a sedimentation of content. What seem like pure forms in art, namely those of traditional music, do in all respects, and all the way down to details of musical idiom, derive from external content such as dance. Similarly, ornaments in the visual arts originally tended to be cult symbols. Members of the Warberg Institute were following this lead, studying the derivability of aesthetic forms from contents in the context of classical antiquity and its influence on later periods. This kind of work needs to be undertaken on a large scale. The manner in which art communicates with the outside world is in fact also a lack of communication, because art seeks, blissfully or unhappily, to seclude itself from the world. This non-communication points to the fractured nature of art. It is natural to think that art's autonomous domain has no more in common with the outside world than a few borrowed elements undergoing radical change in the context of art. But there is more to it than that. There is some truth to the historical cliché which states that the developments of artistic methods, usually lumped together under the term "style", correspond to social development. Even the most sublime work of art takes up a definite position Vis-à-vis② reality by stepping outside of reality spell, not abstractly once and for all, but occasionally and in concrete ways, when it unconsciously and tacitly polemicizes against the condition of society at a particular point in time. How can works of art be like windowless monads, representing something which is other than them? There is only one way to explain this, which is to view them as being subject to a dynamic or immanent historicity and a dialectical tension between nature and domination of nature, a dialectic that seems to be of the same kind as the dialectic of society, or to put it more cautiously, the dialectic of art resembles the social dialectic without consciously imitating it. The productive force of useful labor and that of art are the same. They both have he same teleology. And what might be termed aesthetic relations of production—defined as everything that provides an outlet for the productive forces of art or everything in which these forces become embedded—are sedimentations of social relations of production bearing the imprint of the latter. Thus in all dimension of its productive process art has a twofold essence, being both an autonomous entity and a social fact in the Durkheimian sense of the term. It is through this relationship to the empirical that work of art salvage, albeit in neutralized fashion, something that once upon a time was literally a shared experience of all mankind and which enlightenment had since expelled. Art, too, partakes of enlightenment; but in a different way: works of art do not lie; what they say is literally true. Their reality however lies in the fact that they are answers to questions brought before them from outside. The tension in art therefore has meaning only in relation to the tension outside. The fundamental layers of artistic experience are akin to the objective world from which art recoils. The unresolved antagonisms of reality reappear in art in the guise of immanent problems of artistic form. This, and not the dilate injection of objective moments or social content, defines art's relation to society. The aesthetic tensions manifesting themselves in works of art express the essence of reality in and through their emancipation from the factual of exteriority. Art's simultaneous dissociation from and secret connection with empirical being confirms the strength of Hegel's analysis of the nature of a conceptual barrier: the intellect, argues Hegel against Kant, no sooner posits a barrier than it has to go beyond it, absorbing into itself that against which the barrier was set up. We have here, among other things, a basis for a non-moralistic critique of the idea of l'art③ pour l'art with its abstract negation of the empirical and with its monomaniac separatism in aesthetic theory. Freedom, the presupposition of art and the self glorifying conception art has of itself, is the cunning of art's reason. Blissfully soaring above the real world, art is still chained by each of its elements to the empirical other, into which it may even sink back altogether at every instant. In their relation to empirical reality works of art recall the ologumenon that in a state of redemption everything will be just as it and yet wholly different. There is an unmistakable similarity in all this with the development of the profane. The profane secularizes the sacred realm to the point where the latter is the only secular thing left. The sacred realm is thus objectified, staked out as it were, because its moment of untruth awaits secularization as much as it tries to avert it through incantation. It follows that art is not defined once and for all by the scope of an immutable concept. Rather, the concept of art is a fragile balance attained now and then, quite similar to the psychological equilibrium between id and ego. Disturbances continually upset the balance, keeping the process in motion. Every work of art is an instant; every great work of art is a stoppage of the process, a momentary standing still, whereas a persistent eye sees only the process. While it is true that works of art provide answers to their own questions, it is equally true that in so doing they become questions for themselves. Take a look at the widespread inclination (which to this day has not been mitigated by education) to perceive art in terms of extra-aesthetic or pre-aesthetic criteria. This tendency is, on the one hand, a mark of atrocious backwardness or of the recessive consciousness of many people. On the other hand, a mark of atrocious backwardness or of the recessive consciousness of many people. On the other hand, there is no denying that that tendency is promoted by something in art itself. If art is perceived strictly in aesthetic terms, then it cannot be properly perceived in aesthetic terms. The artist must feel the presence of the empirical other in the foreground of his own experience in order to be able to sublimate that experience, thus freeing himself from his confinement to content while at the same time saving he being-for-itself of art from slipping into outright indifference toward the world. Art is and is not being-for-itself. Without a heterogeneous moment, art cannot achieve autonomy. Great epics that survive their own oblivion were originally shot through with historical and geographical reporting. Valery, for one, was aware of the degree to which the Homeric, pagan-germanic and Christian epics contained raw materials that had never been melted down and recast by the laws of form., noting that this did not diminish their tank in comparison with "pure" works of art. Similarly, tragedy, the likely origin of the abstract idea of aesthetic autonomy, was also an after-image of pragmatically oriented cult acts. At no point in its history of progressive emancipation was art able to stamp out that moment, And the reason is not that the bonds were simply too Strong. Long before socialist realism rationally planned its debasement, the realistic novel, which was at its height as a literary form in the 19th century, bears the marks of reportage, anticipating what was later to become the task of social science surveys. Conversely, the fanatic thoroughness of linguistic integration that characterizes Madame Bovary, for instance, is probably the result of the contrary moment. The continued relevance of this work is due to the unity of both. In art, the criterion of success is twofold: first, works of art must be able to integrate materials and details into their immanent law of form; and, second, they must not try to erase the fractures left by the process of integration. Integration as such does not guarantee quality. There is no privileged single category, not even the aesthetically central one of form, which defined the essence of art and suffices to judge its product. In short, art has defining characteristics that go against the grain of what philosophy of art ordinarily conceives as art. Hegel is the exception. His aesthetics of content recognized the moment of otherness inherent in art, thus superseding the old aesthetic of form. The latter seems to be operating with too pure a concept of art, even though it has at least one advantage, which is that it does not, unlike Hegel's (and Kierkegaaed's) substantive aesthetics, place obstacles in the way of certain historical developments such as abstract painting. This is one weakness of art regresses to a position that can only be called "pre-aesthetic" and crude, Hegel mistakes, the replicatory or discursive treatment of contend for the kind of otherness that is constitutive of art. He sins, as it were, against his own dialectical concept of aesthetics, with results that he could not foresee. He in effect helped prepare the way of the bonuses tendency to transform art into an ideology of repression. The moment of unreality and non-existence in art is not independent of the existent, as though it were posited or invented by some arbitrary will. Rather, that moment of unreality is structure resulting from quantitative relations between elements of being, relations which are in turn a response to, and an echo of, the imperfections of real conditions, their constraints, their contradictions, and their potentialities. Art is related to its other like a magnet to a field of iron filings. The elements of art as well as their constellation, or what is commonly thought to be he spiritual essence of art, point back to the real other. The identity of the works of art with existent reality also accounts for the centripetal force that enables tem to gather unto themselves the traces and membra disiecta④ of real life. Their affinity with the world lies in a principle that is conceived to be a contrast to that world but is in fact no different from the principle whereby spirit has dominated the world. Synthesis is not some process of imposing order on the elements of work of art. It is important, rather, that the elements interact with each other; hence there is a sense in which synthesis is a mere repetition of the pre-established interdependence among elements, where interdependence is a product of otherness, of non-art. Synthesis, therefore, is firmly grounded in the material aspects of works of art. There is a link between the aesthetic moment of form an non-violence. In its difference from the existent, art of necessity constitutes itself in terms of that which is not a work of art yet is indispensable for its being. The emphasis on non-intentionality in art, noticeable first in the sympathy for popular art in Apollinaire, early Cubism and Wedekind (who derided what he called "art-artists") indicates that art became aware, however dimly, that it interacted with its opposite. This new self conceptions of art gave rise to a critical turn signaling an eng to the illusory equation of art with pure spirituality. Notes: ① Sui generis: (Latin) of its own kind; peculiar; unique. ② Vis-à-vis: (French) regarding; in relation to. ③ I'artpour l'art: (French) art for art's sake. ④ membra disiecta: (Latin) scattered parts.
1. A. Please judge whether the following statements are true or false by marking T for true and F for false. If art cannot be many different things at the same time, art cannot be a' self-contained entity.
对 错
A
[解析] 第九段前两句话：Art is and is not being-for-itself. Without a heterogeneous moment, art cannot achieve autonomy. Heterogeneous：(特征或内容)不同的，不同种类的，各种各样的。 本文为德国著名哲学家、美学家西奥多·阿多诺的一篇论著，讲述的是他对艺术与社会关系的见解。阿多诺的美学思想认为艺术的本质特征应该是否定性，艺术是对现实世界的否定性认识，艺术是对现实世界的疏离和否定。自律性是艺术和艺术家的追求，只有立足于自律性的艺术方成为真正的艺术。
2. The essence of art and the value of the works of art can be defined or judged with certain simplified category or certain aesthetic form.
对 错
B
[解析] 第十段第三行：There is no privileged single category, not even the aesthetically central one of form, which defines the essence of art and suffices to judge its product，即：没有任何一种形式可以概括艺术的精华或者评判其产品。因此此题与原文相反。
3. Hegel actually helped prepare the way of the pragmatic tendency to have art serve as an ideology of repression.
对 错
A
[解析] 第十段最后一句话：He in effect helped prepare the way of the banausic tendency to transform art into an ideology of repression. Banausic：实用的。Pragmatic：讲究实际的，讲求实效的，实干的。
4. Freedom is thought to be art's essence and its best quality.
对 错
B
[解析] 第七段第一句话：Freedom, the presupposition of art and the self glorifying conception art has of itself, is the cunning of art's reason. 原文并没有说freedom是art的本质和最好的品质。
5. Art takes part in enlightenment in a way that it always tells the truth.
对 错
A
[解析] 第五段第三行：Art, too, partake of enlightenment, but in a different way: works of art do not lie; what they say is literally true.
6. B. Please answer the following questions based on the above passage. And your answers should be brief and to the point with no more than three lines of words for each question. What is the "ideal of self-identical art" according to Adorno? Explain it in simple words.
The author believes in the idea that every work of art spontaneously aims at being identical with itself and separates from the empirical reality.
[解析] 第一段中有两个表达：Implied here is...，和It is by virtue...，由此可以推知作者的观点。
7. What does the author want to emphasize when talking about works of art?
What must be kept in mind is that works of art are alive, and the author wants to emphasize the inner constitution of the Works.
[解析] 第一段后半部分。“It must be kept in mind...”，即“我们必须牢记……”；以及该段倒数第三句“The emphasis must be on...”。
8. What is the fractured nature of art?
It refers to the non-communication. The manner in which art communicates with the outside world is in fact a lack of communication.
[解析] 第三段前两句话。fractured：断裂的。该段第一句话指出：The manner in which art communicates with the outside world is in fact also a lack of communication, because art seeks, blissfully or unhappily, to seclude itself from the world. 而第二句中的this non-communication就是第一句所提到的内容。
9. What according to Adorno defines the art's relation to society?
The unresolved antagonisms of reality reappear in art in the guise of immanent problems of artistic form, and this defines art's relation to society.
[解析] 第六段第一句话。unresolved：意见不统一的，未解决的，未决定的，未分解的，未加分析的。antagonism：对抗(状态)，对抗性。in the guise of：假借，以……为幌子。
10. For what purpose does the author mention Valery and Madame Bovary?
The author's mentioning of Valéry and Madame Bovary functions as examples for explaining his idea that are is and is not being-for-oneself.
The author concludes that art became dimly aware that it interacted with its opposite, i.e. the existent, and this new self-conception of art gave rise to a critical turn signaling an end to the illusory equation of art with pure spirituality.
of exteriority. Art's simultaneous dissociation from and secret connection with empirical being confirms the strength of Hegel's analysis of the nature of a conceptual barrier: the intellect, argues Hegel against Kant, no sooner posits a barrier than it has to go beyond it, absorbing into itself that against which the barrier was set up. We have here, among other things, a basis for a non-moralistic critique of the idea of l'art③ pour l'art with its abstract negation of the empirical and with its monomaniac separatism in aesthetic theory.
深色：已答题 浅色：未答题