银符考试题库-在线练习-GRE真题汇编5

GRE真题汇编5

Verbal Reasoning

1. At a certain period in Earth's history, its atmosphere contained almost no oxygen, although plants were producing vast quantities of oxygen. As a way of reconciling these two facts, scientists have hypothesized that nearly all of the oxygen being produced was taken up by iron on Earth's surface. Clearly, however, this explanation is inadequate. New studies show that the amount of iron on Earth's surface was not sufficient to absorb anywhere near as much oxygen as was being produced. Therefore, something in addition to the iron on Earth's surface must have absorbed much of the oxygen produced by plant life
In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles? ______

A.The first is a claim made by the argument in support of a certain position; the second is that position.
B.The first is a judgment made by the argument about a certain explanation; the second is that explanation.
C.The first expresses the argument's dismissal of an objection to the position it seeks to establish; the second is that position.
D.The first sums up the argument's position with regard to a certain hypothesis; the second provides grounds for that position.
E.The first is a concession by the argument that its initial formulation of the position it seeks to establish requires modification; the second presents that position in a modified form.

[考点] 句子的关系与作者写作的意图
[解析] 1．做题分析
①At a certain period in Earth's history, its atmosphere contained almost no oxygen, although plants were producing vast quantities of oxygen. ②As a way of reconciling these two facts, scientists have hypothesized that nearly all of the oxygen being produced was taken up by iron on Earth's surface. ③Clearly, however, this explanation is inadequate. ④New studies show that the amount of iron on Earth's surface was not sufficient to absorb anywhere near as much oxygen as was being produced.⑤Therefore, something in addition to the iron on Earth's surface must have absorbed much of the oxygen produced by plant life.
2．文章结构
这篇是一个事实+讨论原因的基本结构。
3．文章精析
①这句话陈述了两个事实(facts)。事实一：地球的大气层以前是没有氧气的。事实二：植物产生大量的氧气。为什么会这样?下文将会对此进行讨论，那肯定会有不同的假设或者理论。
②这句话主要讲了第一个解释：这些氧气被地球上的铁吸收了。
③出现转折词however，说明这个解释不正确。而且这一句很明显是一个观点(position)。因为这一句是很主观的。GRE阅读考试一定要明白每一句话在文章当中的功能和写作意图，否则是根本无法考到理想的分数的。因为一来GRE阅读本身就考这种题型，如这篇的题目，考查两句话之间的关系。二来，要想快速阅读，必须要区分主题与细节，详细理解主题。细节略读。但是如果大家不知道哪句是细节，哪些是主题，如何详略得当地阅读呢?
④这一句很明显是上一句的reason，提供证据来支持上一句的观点。具体是：地球表面的铁不足以吸收那么多氧气。
⑤由Therefore可以知道这句话是结论，所以必然是地球表面的其他物质吸收了植物产生的氧气。
题型：句子关系题
判断句子起到什么作用需要联系上下文的内容。第一处this explanation is inadequate出现在第一个解释之后，直接说这个解释不对，总结了这篇文章的观点；第二个句子则为前面一句的观点提供支持的理由。对应这两个作用，只有D选项符合。A选项in support of立场不对，错误；B选项a certain explanation，that explanation指的是同一个解释，然而这两部分针对的不是相同的结论，错误；C选项，an objection to the position不对，文章没有反对某件事，错误；E选项concession不对，这里没有让步，错误。答案是D。另外，做好这种题，必须要明白，什么是position，什么是argument，什么是explanation，什么是objection等抽象名词。

Animal signals, such as the complex songs of birds, tend to be costly. A bird, by singing, may forfeit time that could otherwise be spent on other important behaviors such as foraging or resting. Singing may also advertise an individual's location to rivals or predators and impair the ability to detect their approach. Although these types of cost may be important, discussions of the cost of singing have generally focused on energy costs. Overall the evidence is equivocal: for instance, while Eberhardt found increases in energy consumption during singing for Carolina wrens, Chappell found no effect of crowing on energy consumption in roosters.
To obtain empirical data regarding the energy costs of singing, Thomas examined the relationship between song rate and overnight changes in body mass of male nightingales. Birds store energy as subcutaneous fat deposits or "body reserves"; changes in these reserves can be reliably estimated by measuring changes in body mass. If singing has important energy costs, nightingales should lose more body mass on nights when their song rate is high. Thomas found that nightingales reached a significantly higher body mass at dusk and lost more mass overnight on nights when their song rate was high.
These results suggest that there may be several costs of singing at night associated with body reserves. The increased metabolic cost of possessing higher body mass contributes to the increased overnight mass loss. The strategic regulation of evening body reserves is also likely to incur additional costs, as nightingales must spend more time foraging in order to build up larger body reserves. The metabolic cost of singing itself may also contribute to increased loss of reserves. This metabolic cost may arise from the muscular and neural activity involved in singing or from behaviors associated with singing. For example, birds may expend more of their reserves on thermoregulation if they spend the night exposed to the wind on a song post than if they are in a sheltered roost site. Thomas's data therefore show that whether or not singing per se has an important metabolic cost, metabolic costs associated with singing can have an important measurable effect on a bird's daily energy budget, at least in birds with high song rates such as nightingales.

2. The primary purpose of the passage is to ______.

A.compare the different types of cost involved for certain birds in singing
B.question a hypothesis regarding the energy costs of singing for certain birds
C.present evidence suggesting that singing has an important energy cost for certain birds
D.discuss the benefits provided to an organism by a behavior that is costly in energy
E.describe an experiment that supports an alternative model of how birdsong functions

[考点] 主旨的理解
[解析] 1．做题分析
①Animal signals, such as the complex songs of birds, tend to be costly.②A bird, by singing, may forfeit time that could otherwise be spent on other important behaviors such as foraging or resting.③Singing may also advertise an individual's location to rivals or predators and impair the ability to detect their approach.④Although these types of cost may be important, discussions of the cost of singing have generally focused on energy costs.⑤Overall the evidence is equivocal: for instance, while Eberhardt found increases in energy consumption during singing for Carolina wrens, Chappell found no effect of crowing on energy consumption in roosters.
⑥To obtain empirical data regarding the energy costs of singing, Thomas examined the relationship between song rate and overnight changes in body mass of male nightingales.⑦Birds store energy as subcutaneous fat deposits or "body reserves"; changes in these reserves can be reliably estimated by measuring changes in body mass.⑧If singing has important energy costs, nightingales should lose more body mass on nights when their song rate is high.⑨Thomas found that nightingales reached a significantly higher body mass at dusk and lost more mass overnight on nights when their song rate was high.
⑩These results suggest that there may be several costs of singing at night associated with body reserves.⑪The increased metabolic cost of possessing higher body mass contributes to the increased overnight mass loss.⑫The strategic regulation of evening body reserves is also likely to incur additional costs, as nightingales must spend more time foraging in order to build up larger body reserves.⑬The metabolic cost of singing itself may also contribute to increased loss of reserves. ⑭This metabolic cost may arise from the muscular and neural activity involved in singing or from behaviors associated with singing.⑮For example, birds may expend more of their reserves on thermoregulation if they spend the night exposed to the wind on a song post than if they are in a sheltered roost site.⑯Thomas's data therefore show that whether or not singing per se has an important metabolic cost, metabolic costs associated with singing can have an important measurable effect on a bird's daily energy budget, at least in birds with high song rates such as nightingales.
2．文章结构
文章主要讲鸟类唱歌对自身能量消耗问题，并列举了一个相关的实验予以证明。第一段提出比如鸟类唱歌之类的动物信号对动物的影响，但是目前的实验结果都很模糊；第二段讲一个科学家Thomas的验证实验，包括这个实验的合理性、实验方法和结论；第三段讲一些根据实验结果得到的其他结论。
第一段：
主题：动物信号，比如鸟类的歌声对动物本身的消耗是很大的。
细节1：代价大的两个理由。
细节2：对这类代价的研究主要聚焦于能量消耗。
第二段：
主题：为了探究唱歌对鸟类的能量消耗，科学家Thomas对唱歌导致的鸟类隔天体重变化做了探究。
细节1：这个实验的合理性。
细节2：预期的结果。
细节3：实验结果。
第三段：
主题：唱歌还会给鸟类带来其他类型的消耗。
细节1：鸟类唱歌引起新陈代谢水平增加。
细节2：新陈代谢水平增加对鸟类的影响。
3．文章精析
第一段：第一句给出一个结论性质的主题，后面用两句话证明这个结论，最后两句说明目前存在的问题。
①这是本段主题，讲释放动物信号对于动物来说是一件代价很大的事(costly)，插入语是一个动物信号的例子，即鸟类的歌声，也是本文主要的讨论对象。
②没有取反词，这句话是细节，用来证明上一句的costly，因为鸟类唱歌时会消耗它们本来可以用于觅食(foraging)或休息(resting)的时间(forfeit time)。
③没有取反词，这句话是细节，also表示并列，是另一个costly的证据。唱歌会把自己的位置暴露给(advertise an individual's location)对手或捕食者(rivals or predators)。
④出现取反词Although，这是另一个主题。虽然这些代价都是很重要的，对于这些代价的讨论主要聚焦于能量消耗(energy costs)，说明实际存在很多类型的消耗。
⑤没有取反词，这句话是细节。对于能量消耗的证据是比较模糊的(the evidence is equivocal)，冒号后面列举了两个结果相反的实验证明了equivocal：Eberhardt的实验表明鸟类唱歌时能量消耗增加，而Chappell对公鸡的实验发现没有能量消耗增加。
第二段：第二段讲述一个验证实验，这一段分别讲述了实验是通过什么方法验证的，这个实验的预期是什么，以及实验结论。
⑥这是本段主题，讲述实验目的和实验内容。目的是获得唱歌带来的能量消耗的实验数据(obtain empirical data regarding the energy costs of singing)，具体手段是验证鸟唱歌频率和体重损失之间的关系。
⑦没有取反词，这句话是细节，讲这个实验的合理性。因为鸟类会在身体中储存能量(body reserves)，这样体重的变化就能代表它们能量消耗的情况。
⑧没有取反词，这句话是细节，讲这个实验的预期结果。如果唱歌导致能量消耗，那么歌唱频率高时(song rate is high)，体重损耗就会变大(lose more body mass)。
⑨没有取反词，这句话是细节，讲这个实验的结果。Thomas发现，当鸟更频繁地唱歌时，它们会在傍晚储存更多的体重(a significantly higher body mass at dusk)并且晚上会损失很多的体重(lost more mass overnight)。
第三段：这一段讲根据这个实验带来的其他结论：唱歌还会带来其他类型的损耗，因为鸟类的新陈代谢水平增加了。结尾给出结论：通过这个实验证明唱歌确实对鸟类能量有很大影响。
⑩这是本段主旨，These results指代上文的实验结果。这些结果说明唱歌造成的能量消耗与储存的体能有关(associated with body reserves)。
⑪没有取反词，这句话是细节，相当于实验结果的解释。这里higher body mass就是高的body reserves，体重增加之后，新陈代谢水平也增加(The increased metabolic cost)，这样晚上损失的体重也会增加(increased overnight mass loss)。
⑫没有取反词，这句话是细节，The strategic regulation of evening body reserves指的是前一句中“储存多，消耗也多”的调节方式，这会导致额外的能量消耗(incur additional costs)。因为鸟类会更多地去觅食(spend more time foraging)增加自己的能量储存(build up larger body reserves)。
⑬、⑭没有取反词，细节。说明新陈代谢水平增加本身也会带来额外的消耗(contribute to increased loss of reserves)，这些消耗包括唱歌过程中肌肉和神经的活动(muscular and neural activity)。
⑮没有取反词，这句话是细节，用例子来证明上一句的观点，粗略读一下即可：当鸟在不同的地方唱歌时，它们自身存在不同的热量调节(thermoregulation)。
⑯没有取反词，这句话是细节，Thomas's data指的是实验结果，这里是对相关推论的一个总结：无论唱歌是否造成了很大的由于新陈代谢带来的损耗，这都对鸟类每天的能量使用有很大影响(have an important measurable effect on a bird's daily energy budget)，至少是对晚上唱歌很频繁的种类(比如实验中使用的那种鸟)。
题型：主旨题
本文的主旨句是Animal signals, such as the complex songs of birds, tend to be costly，主要内容是用实验证明唱歌对鸟类能量有很大消耗，强调的是costly，所有选项中只有C选项主题正确且important体现了costly，答案是C。

3. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
The passage implies that during the day before a night on which a male nightingale's song rate is high, that nightingale probably does which of the following? ______

A.Expends less of its reserves on thermoregulation than on other days
B.Stores more energy as body reserves than on other days
C.Hides to avoid predators

A B C

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 题型：不定项选择题
这道题根据a male nightingale's song rate is high定位到第二段，不定项选择题看选项排除：A选项的thermoregulation出现在第三段，不在定位范围，错误；B选项，符合实验结果的reached a significantly higher body mass at dusk，正确；C选项，predators出现在第一段，不在定位范围，错误。答案是B。

4. Select the sentence in the first or second paragraph that presents empirical results in support of a hypothesis about the energy costs of singing.

Thomas found ...high.

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 题型：句子选择题
这道题很简单，选择支持关于能量消耗假设的实验结果，所以定位到第二段最后一句Thomas found that nightingales...on nights when their song rate was high。

5. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
It can be inferred from the passage that compared with other costs of singing, which of the following is true of the energy costs of singing? ______

A.They are the single greatest cost to an individual bird.
B.They have generally received more attention from scientists.
C.They vary less from one bird species to another.

A B C

[考点] 全文细节的理解
[解析] 题型：不定项选择题
题目问与其他能量消耗相比，关于唱歌造成能量消耗的哪个观点正确。这道题的定位范围在第一和第三段，不定项选择题看选项排除：A选项，我们只知道唱歌造成的能量损耗很大，但是不知道是不是最大的，错误；B选项符合第一段的Although these types of cost may be important, discussions of the cost of singing have generally focused on energy costs，正确；C选项，文章没有讨论不同种鸟类的问题，错误。答案是B。

The condition of scholarship devoted to the history of women in photography is confounding. Recent years have witnessed the posthumous inflation of the role of the hobbyist Alice Austen into that of a pioneering documentarian while dozens of notable senior figures—Marion Palfi, whose photographs of civil-rights activities in the South served as early evidence of the need for protective legislation, to name one — received scant attention from scholars. And, while Naomi Rosenblum's synoptic History of Women Photographers covers the subject through 1920 in a generally useful fashion, once she reaches the 1920s, when the venues, forms, applications, and movements of the medium expanded exponentially, she resorts to an increasingly terse listing of unfamiliar names, with approaches and careers summarized in a sentence or two

6. The author of the passage cites Rosenblum's book most likely in order to ______.

A.suggest that the works documented most thoroughly by historians of women in photography often do not warrant that attention
B.offer an explanation for the observation that not all aspects of the history of women in photography have received the same level of attention
C.provide an example of a way in which scholarship on the history of women in photography has been unsatisfactory
D.suggest that employing a strictly chronological approach when studying the history of women in photography may be unproductive
E.provide support for the notion that certain personalities in women's photography have attained undue prominence

[考点] 细节的目的与功能
[解析] 1．做题分析
①The condition of scholarship devoted to the history of women in photography is confounding. ②Recent years have witnessed the posthumous inflation of the role of the hobbyist Alice Austen into that of a pioneering documentarian while dozens of notable senior figures—Marion Palfi, whose photographs of civil-rights activities in the South served as early evidence of the need for protective legislation, to name one—received scant attention from scholars.③And, while Naomi Rosenblum's synoptic History of Women Photographers covers the subject through 1920 in a generally useful fashion, once she reaches the 1920s, when the venues, forms, applications, and movements of the medium expanded exponentially, she resorts to an increasingly terse listing of unfamiliar names, with approaches and careers summarized in a sentence or two.
2．文章结构
文章虽然短，但是由于组成文章的细节主要是两个特别长的句子，所以读起来比较难。主题：对于女性摄影的历史的研究状况是令人困惑的、不满意的。然后后面由两个细节来证明这一主题句。这是一篇全文论证一个主题的经典结构的文章。
3．文章精析
①这是文章的主题，主干是The condition of scholarship is confounding．confounding一词表示“令人混淆的”(贬义)，是一个常考词，在这句话里是用来形容condition的，所以转化为相应的贬义词应该是“不好的，令人不满意的”。scholarship是“研究”的意思，整体意思是对于这类研究的状况是令人困惑的、不满意的。
②这一句重点在于理解其作者写作意图和功能目的。很明显，这一句就是证明上一句的研究是很混乱的、令人不满意的。这一句提供了证据：这些年，我们看到摄像爱好者Alice竟然被“神化，夸大”为documentarian的先驱；而另一个资深人物却无人问津。有点类似于现在社会流行的一个段子“大师在流浪，小丑在殿堂”。两个破折号之间其实就是细节的细节(因为这一句本身是细节，插入语部分也是细节，因此称为细节的细节)．这种细节的细节，第一遍是无须理解和阅读的。当然，这一句的插入语里面，后面题目考到，再详细看，不考就不会再看了。要理解插入语部分，首先要明白这一句是存在因果逻辑关系的，这个可以由served as early evidence of the need for看出来。前面部分是因，后面部分是果。简单而言就是：protective legislation的出现得益于Marion的摄影。
③没有取反词，这句话是细节。由and一词可知这一句和第二句一起用来证明本文第一句的主题句。因此在考试的时候，这一句and后面就可以完全不读了。不读的底气在于，细节考到再看，不考就不看。但是咱们是明白其写作意图和功能目的的，足矣。这一句的意思其实也很简单，就是Naomi这个人的作品详略不当。对于人们不熟悉的内容，她却一笔带过，那也证明了前面第一句的confounding。
题型：细节目的题
细节的目的是为主题服务。根据Rosenblum定位到第三句，这和第二句话都是例子，用来证明第一句主题句。根据文章解析，主题的大意是“对于女性摄影的历史的研究状况是令人困惑的、不满意的”，所有选项中只有C选项主题(scholarship)和情感色彩(unsatisfactory)全部正确，答案是C。其中unsatisfactory与原文的confounding是同义替换。注意，所谓的同义替换，不一定非得是同义词。

7. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
Which of the following statements about Marion Palfi is supported by the passage? ______

A.Marion Palfi's photographs would have received greater recognition from historians had her work been done in an era when most aspects of photography were static rather than in a state of transition.
B.Alice Austen has achieved greater notoriety than has Marion Palfi primarily because the subjects that Austen photographed were more familiar to her contemporaries.
C.In addition to providing a record of certain historical events, Marion Palfi's photographs played a role in subsequent events.

A B C

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 题型：不定项选择题
根据Marion Palfi定位到第二句后半部分，不定项选择题适合用排除法：A选项，这部分没有虚拟语气的成分，所以看到would have received就可以排除；B选项，Alice Austen和Marison Palfi之间没有比较关系，错误；C选项，前半部分符合whose photographs of civil-rights activities in the South served as early evidence of the need for protective legislation，后半部分符合to name one，说明Marison Palfi在其他方面也有贡献，正确。答案是C。

8. In the context in which it appears, "inflation" (line 2) most nearly means ______.

A.exaggeration
B.acquisition
C.evaluation
D.distortion
E.attenuation

[考点] 词汇的掌握或根据上下文推断词义的能力
[解析] 题型：词汇题
inflation一般大家熟悉的意思是“膨胀，通货膨胀”，但是在GRE阅读考试里，经常考的意思是“夸大，夸张”的意思，大家一定要注意。答案是A。此外，如何根据上下文推断词义?这个词出现在第二句话，这是一个由while连接的并列句，两句之间是对比关系，由于后半部分scant是“少”的意思，所以前面就是“多”，只有A可以体现这个特点，答案是A。exaggeration：夸张；acquisition：获得；evaluation：评价；distortion：扭曲；attenuation：减轻。都是常考词汇。平时备考的时候很辛苦，很痛苦，考试的时候就很轻松，热泪盈眶；平时备考的时候很轻松，懒懒散散，考试的时候就会很痛苦，泪流满面。人生也大抵如此。你选择哪一种?

When marine organisms called phytoplankton photosynthesize, they absorb carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater, potentially causing a reduction in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes to global warming. However, phytoplankton flourish only in surface waters where iron levels are sufficiently high. Martin therefore hypothesized that adding iron to iron-poor regions of the ocean could help alleviate global warming. While experiments subsequently confirmed that such a procedure increases phytoplankton growth, field tests have shown that such growth does not significantly lower atmospheric carbon dioxide. When phytoplankton utilize carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, the carbon becomes a building block for organic matter, but the carbon leaks back into the atmosphere when predators consume the phytoplankton and respire carbon dioxide.

9. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
It can be inferred from the passage that Martin's hypothesis includes which of the following elements? ______

A.A correct understanding of how phytoplankton photosynthesis utilizes carbon dioxide
B.A correct prediction about how the addition of iron to iron-poor waters would affect phytoplankton growth
C.An incorrect prediction about how phytoplankton growth would affect the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide

A B C

ABC

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 1．做题分析
①When marine organisms called phytoplankton photosynthesize, they absorb carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater, potentially causing a reduction in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes to global warming. ②However, phytoplankton flourish only in surface waters where iron levels are sufficiently high. ③Martin therefore hypothesized that adding iron to iron-poor regions of the ocean could help alleviate global warming.④While experiments subsequently confirmed that such a procedure increases phytoplankton growth, field tests have shown that such growth does not significantly lower atmospheric carbon dioxide.⑤When phytoplankton utilize carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, the carbon becomes a building block for organic matter, but the carbon leaks back into the atmosphere when predators consume the phytoplankton and respire carbon dioxide.
2．文章结构
这篇文章以一个客观事实开篇，继而提出一个问题的解决方案然后再否定它的可行性。
背景：海里的phytoplankton在光合作用时会吸收二氧化碳。
主旨：由于phytoplankton只在含铁量高的海水中生存，Martin(简称M)认为向海水中加入铁可以解决全球变暖的问题。
细节：实验结果表明这个方法不能减少大气中的二氧化碳。
3．文章精析
①这句话是文章背景。这句话给出了一个事实，即phytoplankton(不需要知道是什么)在光合作用时(photosynthesize，其中photo是“光”的意思，synthesize是“合成”的意思)，它们会吸收海水中的二氧化碳，这会导致大气中二氧化碳含量下降，逗号后面是补充信息，即二氧化碳是导致全球变暖的气体。
②出现取反词however，表明这种生物并不是在所有的地方都存在，而是仅能在含铁量高(iron levels are sufficiently high)的海水中表明大量存在(flourish)。
③上面一句是现象，这一句出现了基于前面的现象提出的假设。于是M提出一个假想，即在铁含量不足的海水中加入铁可以解决全球变暖的问题，alleviate：减轻，是一个常考词汇。这里手段和目的的关系特别明显，不需要详细说明。
④While表示对比，说明根据实验结果，M预期的前半部分对了，但是后半部分错了。虽然加入铁有利于phytoplankton的生长(increases phytoplankton growth)，但是这种方法并不能大幅度地降低大气中二氧化碳的含量(does not significantly lower atmospheric carbon dioxide)，因此就不能解决全球变暖的问题。
⑤没有取反词，这句话是细节，详细说明这个方法为什么不可行。当phytoplankton消耗二氧化碳时，里面的碳元素用来构成生物体本身，但是当phytoplankton被吃掉时，碳元素就会重新回到大气中，所以不会导致二氧化碳含量下降。
题型：不定项选择题
题目问“M做出那个假设包括了什么”，不定项选择题根据选项排除：A选项，phytoplankton如何利用二氧化碳进行光合作用，对应原文的第一句，即phytoplankton吸收空气中的二氧化碳，正确；B选项符合实验结果的前半部分experiments subsequently confirmed that such a procedure increases phytoplankton growth，正确；C选项符合试验结果的后半部分such growth does not significantly lower atmospheric carbon dioxide，正确。答案是A，B，C。

10. It can be inferred that the author of the passage mentions predators (line 9) primarily in order to ______.

A.help explain why Martin's hypothesis is incorrect
B.identify one effect of adding iron to iron-poor waters
C.indicate how some carbon dioxide is converted to solid organic matter
D.help account for differences in the density of phytoplankton between different regions of the ocean
E.point out a factor that was not anticipated by the scientists who conducted the field tests mentioned in the passage

[考点] 细节的目的
[解析] 题型：细节目的题
细节的目的是为主旨服务，predators出现的位置在解释实验结果的部分，这句话的目的是解释M的假设为什么不可行，所有选项中只有A体现了“解释(explain)”和“证明错误(incorrect)”，其他选项的动词都不对，答案是A。

Fossil bones of the huge herbivorous dinosaurs known as sauropods were first discovered and studied between 1840 and 1880, providing evidence for the gargantuan dimensions of the adults. The shape of sauropod teeth suggested what they ate. But aside from trackways, or series of fossilized footprints—which established that sauropods at least occasionally lived in herds—fossils incorporating direct evidence of other behavior, such as reproductive behavior, have been almost nonexistent. Because no modern land animals even approach sauropod size, scientists have also lacked a living analogue to use as a guide to possible sauropod behavior. Until the recent discovery of fossilized sauropod nesting grounds, scientists were thus uncertain whether sauropods laid eggs or gave birth to live young.

11. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage regarding the evidence provided by sauropod teeth? ______

A.The teeth allow inferences to be made about sauropod social behavior.
B.The shape of the teeth indicates that sauropods were herbivorous.
C.The teeth have no resemblance to those of any modern land animal.

A B C

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 1．做题分析
①Fossil bones of the huge herbivorous dinosaurs known as sauropods were first discovered and studied between 1840 and 1880, providing evidence for the gargantuan dimensions of the adults. ②The shape of sauropod teeth suggested what they ate.③But aside from trackways, or series of fossilized footprints—which established that sauropods at least occasionally lived in herds—fossils incorporating direct evidence of other behavior, such as reproductive behavior, have been almost nonexistent. ④Because no modern land animals even approach sauropod size, scientists have also lacked a living analogue to use as a guide to possible sauropod behavior.⑤Until the recent discovery of fossilized sauropod nesting grounds, scientists were thus uncertain whether sauropods laid eggs or gave birth to live young.
2．文章结构
文章主要讲述对一种大型恐龙sauropods骨骼化石的一些研究。
3．文章精析
①这句话是文章背景，告诉我们本文的主题是sauropods的骨骼化石(fossil bones)，它们于1840年和1880年间被发现并研究，它们提供了成年sauropods有多大的信息，gargantuan dimensions直译过来是“巨大的尺寸”的意思。
②没有取反词，这句话是细节，写sauropods的骨骼化石提供的另一个信息：牙齿的形状告诉我们它们吃什么食物。
③出现取反词But，虽然句子很长，但是主干很清晰，且文章大部分内容是关于这句话的，所以是文章的主题。两个破折号之间以及插入语为细节，主干大意为：除了(sauropods)踩出来的路和它们的脚印，可以提供关于sauropods其他信息的化石几乎不存在(almost nonexistent)。
细节精读：(1)which后面补充脚印的信息：它们证明了sauropods偶尔过群居生活(lived in herds)。
(2)插入语举了一个other behavior的例子，即繁殖(reproductive behavior)。
④Because表示因果逻辑，因为现在的陆生动物都没有sauropod那么大(approach sauropod size)，所以科学家也找不到类似于sauropod这样的活的生物。
⑤没有取反词，这句话是细节。直到最近科学家发现了sauropod的窝，否则科学家都不知道小sauropod到底是胎生还是卵生。
题型：不定项选择题
根据sauropod teeth定位到第二句，不定项选择题看选项排除：A选项，social behavior不在定位范围，错误；B选项，根据原文“牙齿形状表明吃什么食物”的信息，我们可以推出来sauropod可能吃草，正确；C选项，any modern land animal不在定位范围，错误。答案是B。

12. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
Which of the following can be inferred from the passage regarding the recently discovered fossilized sauropod nesting grounds? ______

A.They are among the few fossils incorporating direct evidence of sauropod behavior.
B.They confirm the evidence provided by trackways about sauropod behavior.
C.They have forced a reevaluation of theories regarding the nature of sauropod herd behavior.

A B C

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 题型：不定项选择题
根据nesting grounds定位到最后一句，不定项选择题看选项排除：A选项，文章说了提供sauropod其他行为信息的化石证据几乎不存在，但是根据nesting grounds可以推断出sauropod的繁殖行为，所以它属于上述证据，正确；B选项，trackways不在定位范围，错误；C选项，herd behavior不在定位范围，且文章没提过理论的修正(reevaluation)，错误。答案是A。

Some researchers contend that sleep plays no role in the consolidation of declarative memory (i.e., memory involving factual information). These researchers note that people with impairments in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep continue to lead normal lives, and they argue that if sleep were crucial for memory, then these individuals would have apparent memory deficits. Yet the same researchers acknowledge that the cognitive capacities of these individuals have never been systematically examined, nor have they been the subject of studies of tasks on which performance reportedly depends on sleep. Even if such studies were done, they could only clarify our understanding of the role of REM sleep, not sleep in general.
These researchers also claim that improvements of memory overnight can be explained by the mere passage of time, rather than attributed to sleep. But recent studies of memory performance after sleep—including one demonstrating that sleep stabilizes declarative memories from future interference caused by mental activity during wakefulness—make this claim unsustainable. Certainly there are memory consolidation processes that occur across periods of wakefulness, some of which neither depend on nor are enhanced by sleep. But when sleep is compared with wakefulness, and performance is better after sleep, then some benefit of sleep for memory must be acknowledged.

13. The primary purpose of the passage is to ______.

A.present the evidence that supports a particular claim regarding REM sleep and memory
B.describe how various factors contribute to the effect of sleep on memory
C.argue against a particular position regarding sleep's role in memory
D.summarize the most prevalent theory regarding sleep and memory
E.defend the importance of the consolidation of declarative memory

[考点] 主旨的理解
[解析] 1．做题分析
①Some researchers contend that sleep plays no role in the consolidation of declarative memory (i.e., memory involving factual information). ②These researchers note that people with impairments in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep continue to lead normal lives, and they argue that if sleep were crucial for memory, then these individuals would have apparent memory deficits. ③Yet the same researchers acknowledge that the cognitive capacities of these individuals have never been systematically examined, nor have they been the subject of studies of tasks on which performance reportedly depends on sleep. ④Even if such studies were done, they could only clarify our understanding of the role of REM sleep, not sleep in general.
⑤These researchers also claim that improvements of memory overnight can be explained by the mere passage of time, rather than attributed to sleep.⑥But recent studies of memory performance after sleep —including one demonstrating that sleep stabilizes declarative memories from future interference caused by mental activity during wakefulness—make this claim unsustainable.⑦Certainly there are memory consolidation processes that occur across periods of wakefulness, some of which neither depend on nor are enhanced by sleep.⑧But when sleep is compared with wakefulness, and performance is better after sleep, then some benefit of sleep for memory must be acknowledged.
2．文章结构
文章主要是讨论关于睡眠和记忆关系的几个观点。文章整体呈现“否定”的感情色彩，第一段讨论科学家观点的不足之处，第二段则是否定了一个观点。
第一段：
主旨：科学家认为睡眠对记忆巩固没有关系。
细节1：快速眼动过程有损伤的人记忆并没有出现问题。
细节2：这个实验的研究并不系统。
细节3：而且这些实验不能真正说明问题。
第二段：
背景：这些科学家认为记忆的巩固是因为时间本身，而不是睡眠。
主旨：最近的研究证明这个理论错误。
细节1：的确清醒的时候记忆也可以巩固。
细节2：但是在睡眠过程中巩固的效果好一些。
3．文章精析
第一段：这一段以一个观点开头，分别说明了它的合理性和不合理性。
①这是本段主题，是一个关于睡眠对记忆巩固的理论。科学家认为睡眠对这个过程没有起到作用(plays no role)，括号里是对declarative memory的信息补充，表示这种记忆也包括事实信息。由contend得知，这是观点类型的文章。
②没有取反词，这句话是细节，用来证明这个观点。给出的一个现象是：对于一些快速眼动过程发生损伤的人(impairments)来说生活还是很正常，因此科学家推断，如果睡眠对记忆很重要，这些人的记忆也会发生问题(apparent memory deficits)。
③出现取反词yet，这些科学家承认，这些人的感知能力(cognitive capacities)还没被研究过，而且他们也没有参加过完成任务的测试，而这些任务的完成度和睡眠直接相关。换言之，就是这些科学家的研究没有足够的说服力。也就是第三句的功能是用来反驳第二句，同时也是反驳这一段的主题句。
④Even if是让步逻辑，这句话强调了实验的不系统性。即使做了上述实验，这些实验也只能证明“快速眼动睡眠(做梦)”的作用，而不是睡眠整个过程(sleep in general)。也就是这一句和第三句，一起来质疑第二句，同时也是反驳这一段的主题句。
第二段：
⑤also表示并列，这些科学家认为，记忆的巩固(improvements of memory)可以单纯地靠时间流逝(mere passage of time)解释，而不是睡眠。这里相当于文章第一句话的重复，improvement与consolidation是同义替换。由claim得知，这是观点类型的文章。
⑥出现取反词but，说明这一句开始反驳上一句的观点。两个破折号之间是补充信息，可以不看，句子的主干部分很简单：But recent studies of memory performance after sleep make this claim unsustainable。
⑦没有取反词，这句话是细节。这里Certainly表示让步、承认的逻辑关系。的确清醒的时候记忆也会被巩固，有一些确实和睡眠没关系(neither depend on nor are enhanced by sleep)。这句话体现了科学家的观点在一定程度上的正确的。
⑧出现取反词But，但是清醒与睡眠相比，记忆巩固的效果差一些(performance is better after sleep)，所以睡眠还是对记忆巩固有益的(benefit of sleep for memory must be acknowledged)，也就是睡眠对记忆巩固是起到作用的。可以这么理解，这句话支持了第六句，直接反驳了第七句，间接反驳了第五句。
题型：主旨题
这篇文章主要讨论了两个关于睡眠能否加强记忆的观点(sleep's role in memory)，情感色彩是反对(argue against)，因此所有选项中主题和情感色彩都正确的只有C选项。A选项情感色彩错误(support)，B选项讨论对象不对，文章没有讨论巩固记忆的影响因素，错误；D选项，summarize体现的情感色彩不对，这个词更多体现的是“客观”，错误；E选项讨论对象不对，文章没有讨论巩固记忆的重要性，错误；答案是C。

14. According to the author of the passage, which of the following generalizations about memory and sleep is true? ______

A.There are some memory-consolidation processes that have nothing to do with sleep.
B.Sleep is more important to the consolidation of declarative memory than to the consolidation of other types of memory.
C.REM sleep is more important to memory consolidation than is non-REM sleep.
D.There are significant variations in the amount of sleep that people require for the successful consolidation of memory.
E.It is likely that memory is more thoroughly consolidated during wakefulness than during sleep.

[考点] 全文细节的把握
[解析] 题型：细节内容改写题
由于全文都在讨论睡眠和记忆的关系，因此，这道题适合使用排除法：A选项，符合原文第二段的Certainly there are memory consolidation processes...some of which neither depend on nor are enhanced by sleep，正确；B选项，文章没出现declarative memory和其他记忆的比较，错误；C选项，文章没出现REM sleep和非REM sleep的比较，错误；D选项，文章没有讨论睡眠时间的问题，错误；E选项与原文第二段performance is better after sleep矛盾，错误。答案是A。

15. Which of the following best describes the function of the sentence in lines 13—14 ("Certainly… sleep")? ______

A.It provides the reasoning behind a claim about the role of sleep in memory consolidation.
B.It explains why a previous claim about sleep and memory is unsustainable.
C.It demonstrates why wakefulness is central to the process of declarative memory consolidation.
D.It emphasizes the limited role sleep plays in the process of declarative memory consolidation.
E.It concedes that the consolidation of declarative memory does not depend entirely on one factor.

[考点] 细节的目的
[解析] 题型：细节目的题
细节的目的是为对应的主旨服务，这个句子肯定了一些与睡眠无关的记忆巩固的现象，这里Certainly表示让步、承认的逻辑关系，观察所有选项的动词，发现只有E选项的concedes体现了让步、承认，其他的选项根据动词就可以全部排除，答案是E。

16. The importance of the study mentioned in lines 9—12 (These researchers also caused... by mental activity) is that it ______.

A.reveals the mechanism by which declarative memory is stabilized during sleep
B.identifies a specific function that sleep plays in the memory-consolidation process
C.demonstrates that some kinds of mental activity can interfere with memory consolidation
D.suggests that sleep and wakefulness are both important to memory consolidation
E.explains how the passage of time contributes to memory consolidation

[考点] 句子内容和作用的理解
[解析] 题型：细节内容改写题
这个句子出现在第二段开头主题的位置，主要内容是肯定了睡眠对于记忆巩固的重要性。观察选项：A选项，记忆巩固的机制(mechanism)不是这句话讨论的对象，错误；B选项，identifies a specific function符合它的主要内容，正确；C选项，可以干扰的过程不是这句话讨论的对象，错误；D选项，这句话没有sleep和wakefulness的比较关系，错误；E选项，与A同理，过程不是这句话讨论的对象，错误。答案是B。

The attribution of early-nineteenth-century English fiction is notoriously problematic.Fewer than half of new novels published in Britain between 1800 and 1829 had the author's true name printed on the title page. Most of these titles have subsequently been attributed, either through the author's own acknowledgment of a previously anonymous or pseudonymous work, or through bibliographical research. One important tool available to researchers is the list of earlier works "by the author" often found on title pages. But such lists are as likely to create new confusion as they are to solve old problems. Title pages were generally prepared last in the publication process, often without full authorial assent, and in the last-minute rush to press, mistakes were frequently made.

17. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
The passage suggests that which of the following factors contributes to the "notoriously problematic" (line 1) nature of authorial attribution in early-nineteenth- century English fiction? ______

A.The unwillingness of any writers to acknowledge their authorship of works that were originally published anonymously or pseudonymously
B.The possibility that the title page of a work may attribute works written by other authors to the author of that work
C.The possibility that the author's name printed on a title page is fictitious

A B C

[考点] 细节的理解、同义替换
[解析] 1．做题分析
①The attribution of early-nineteenth-century English fiction is notoriously problematic. ②Fewer than half of new novels published in Britain between 1800 and 1829 had the author's true name printed on the title page.③Most of these titles have subsequently been attributed, either through the author's own acknowledgment of a previously anonymous or pseudonymous work, or through bibliographical research.④One important tool available to researchers is the list of earlier works "by the author" often found on title pages. ⑤But such lists are as likely to create new confusion as they are to solve old problems. ⑥Title pages were generally prepared last in the publication process, often without full authorial assent, and in the last-minute rush to press, mistakes were frequently made.
2．文章结构
这是一篇全文论证一个主题句的文章。第一句就是主题句。其他作为细节，用来支持证明这个主题句。
主旨：19世纪英国早期小说的归属问题是很糟糕的。也就是说要想知道谁是真正的作者是非常困难的。(The attribution of early-nineteenth-century English fiction is notoriously problematic.)。
细节1：不到一半的小说的封面上有作者的真名。
细节2：很多情况下名字都是后加上去的，而且大多数是通过作者之前用匿名、笔名或书目研究确定的。
细节3：使用作品清单可以帮助科学家研究。
细节4：但是这些清单也会产生新的问题。
3．文章精析
①这句话是文章主题：给19世纪早期英国小说找到归属(attribution)是很有问题的(notoriously problematic)，也就是说要想知道谁是真正的作者是非常困难的。attribution：归属，GRE中经常考它的动词形式attribute...to...：认为(文章、艺术品或评论)出自...If a piece of writing, a work of art, or a remark is attributed to someone, people say that they wrote it, created it, or said it.
例：This, and the remaining frescoes, are not attributed to Giotto.
这个，还有那些残存的湿壁画，都不是乔托的作品。
②没有取反词，这句话是细节，用一个事实来证明主题。这个时期只有少于一半的小说封面上有它们作者的真名(true name printed on the title page)。
③没有取反词，这句话是细节，用另一个事实来证明主旨。these titles指的是上一句中有作者名字的title page，这些大多数都是随后加上去的(subsequently been attributed)，是通过作者本人亲自承认之前的匿名创作(anonymous)、笔名创作(pseudonymous)或者对书目的研究(bibliographical research)确定的。可以看出，这些依据都是不够充分的，所以很可能没有找出真正的作者，证明了主题中的notoriously problematic。
④没有取反词，这句话是细节，这里提出了一个解决方法：使用列有作者早期作品的清单(the list of earlier works "by the author"，理解大概意思即可)会帮助我们找到真正的作者。
⑤出现取反词But，但是这不是另一个主题，只用来说明清单的有效性：就像它解决了旧有的问题那样(as they are to solve old problems)，清单也会带来新的问题(create new confusion)。因此，这一句其实是用来反驳上一句的。
⑥没有取反词，这句话是细节，用来证明上一句话。由于这些title pages是最后准备的(generally prepared last)，这些常常都没得到作者的认可(without full authorial assent)，而且整个准备过程很匆忙(last-minute rush)，经常会出现错误。
题型：不定项选择题
factors contributes to the "notoriously problematic"直接对应的就是主旨后面的两句话，不定项选择题使用排除法：A选项，这两句没说任何作家都不愿意(unwillingness of any writers)承认自己之前的匿名或用笔名创作的作品，错误；B选项，这个选项符合这两句话表达的大意，即“给小说找作者时经常找错”，正确；C选项，name printed on a title page is fictitious对应原文的pseudonymous，正确。答案是B，C。

18. For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
The passage suggests that which of the following is frequently true of the title pages of early-nineteenth-century English novels? ______

A.The title page was prepared for printing in a hurried manner.
B.Material on the title page was included without the author's knowledge or approval.
C.Information on the title page was deliberately falsified to make the novel more marketable.

A B C

[考点] 全文细节的把握
[解析] 题型：不定项选择题
对于title pages的讨论贯穿全文，所以需要对全文出现细节的位置有印象，再用排除法排除：A选项hurried manner对应结尾的last-minute rush，正确；B选项without the author's knowledge or approval对应原文的without full authorial assent，正确；C选项关于more marketable文章没提过，错误。答案是A，B。
注意题目中出现的同义替换：

The more definitions a given noun has, the more valuable is each one. Multiple definitions, each subtly different from all the others, convey multiple shades of meaning. They expand the uses of the word; language is enriched, thought is widened, and interpretations increase or dilate to fill the potentialities of association. The very impossibility of absoluteness in the definition of certain nouns adds to the levels of connotation they may reach. The inner life of a writer often says more than most readers can know; the mind of a reader can discover truths that go beyond the intent or perhaps even the comprehension of the writer. And all of it finds expression because a word can mean many things.

19. In the context in which it appears, "shades" (line 2) most nearly means ______.

A.reminders
B.nuances
C.obscurities
D.coverings
E.degrees

[考点] 词汇的掌握或根据上下文推断词语含义的能力
[解析] 1．做题分析
①The more definitions a given noun has, the more valuable is each one. ②Multiple definitions, each subtly different from all the others, convey multiple shades of meaning. ③They expand the uses of the word; language is enriched, thought is widened, and interpretations increase or dilate to fill the potentialities of association. ④The very impossibility of absoluteness in the definition of certain nouns adds to the levels of connotation they may reach. ⑤The inner life of a writer often says more than most readers can know; the mind of a reader can discover truths that go beyond the intent or perhaps even the comprehension of the writer.⑥And all of it finds expression because a word can mean many things.
2．文章结构
文章主要内容是当一个词含义很多的时候有什么好处。
主题：一个词的含义/定义越多，它的每个意义就越有价值。
细节1：这些含义扩大了词语的适用范围。
细节2：这些含义使词语更有内涵意义、隐含意义、联想意义(association)。
3．文章精析
①这是文章的主旨，是The more...the more...的结构，大意是“一个词的含义越多，它的每个意义就越宝贵”，这里的each one指的是“每个定义、意义”。
②没有取反词，这句话是细节，主干的大意是“每个定义都包含了不同的意思”，插入语是补充信息：这些意思每个之间都有细微的差异(subtly different)。
③没有取反词，这句话是细节，解释了主旨中“为什么宝贵”，因为它们(很多的含义)扩大了词语的使用范围(expand the uses)，分号表示并列，后半句几乎表达了相同的意思：语言变得丰富(enriched)，拓宽了思路(widened)，可以增强解读过程中的联想(association)，dilate：扩大；膨胀。
④没有取反词，这句话是细节，大意是：由于每个对词语的定义都不能达到完全(very impossibility of absoluteness)，这就增加了我们想象的空间(使每个词语都有寓意)，connotation：内涵，含蓄，也就是没有被定义、人们意会的含义。
⑤没有取反词，这句话是细节，这句话可以理解为上一句的解释。这句话是一个比较关系：读者不会完全了解作家的内心生活(inner life)，读者读出来的东西可能会远远超过内容，甚至是作者想表达的东西，也就是造成过度解读。
⑥And表示并列，all of it指的是读者的理解，这些解读都是有道理的，因为词语是有很多含义的(读者也会意会出很多意思)。
题型：词汇题
该题考查熟词僻义。shade这个单词大家很熟悉，其实考的释义是：细微差别slight difference or variation, a nuance。例如：the capacity to convey subtle shades of meaning能表达意思上的各种微妙差别的能力。
但是如果没有背过这个考法的话，可以根据原文：each subtly different from all the others来推断，该题应该选B。nuance：a subtle or slight degree of difference, as in meaning, feeling, or tone。

20. The passage suggests that a writer's use of nouns that have multiple definitions can have which of the following effects on the relationship between writer and reader? ______

A.It can encourage the reader to consider how the writer's life might have influenced the work.
B.It can cause the reader to become frustrated with the writer's failure to distinguish between subtle shades of meaning.
C.It can allow the reader to discern in a work certain meanings that the writer did not foresee.
D.It allows the writer to provide the reader with clues beyond the word itself in order to avoid ambiguity.
E.It allows the writer to present unfamiliar ideas to the reader more efficiently.

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 题型：细节内容改写题
根据writer and reader定位到最后两句，大意是多重含义的词语会造成读者过度解读。只有C选项的discern in a work certain meanings that the writer did not foresee表达出了这个意思。A选项writer's life如何影响作品不在本文讨论范围，错误；B选项subtle shades of meaning不在定位范围，错误；D选项clues beyond the word itself文章没提到，错误；E选项unfamiliar ideas文章没提到，错误。答案是C。

Until recently, many anthropologists assumed that the environment of what is now the southwestern United States shaped the social history and culture of the region's indigenous peoples. Building on this assumption, archaeologists asserted that adverse environmental conditions and droughts were responsible for the disappearances and migrations of southwestern populations from many sites they once inhabited.
However, such deterministic arguments fail to acknowledge that local environmental variability in the Southwest makes generalizing about that environment difficult. To examine the relationship between environmental variation and sociocultural change in the Western Pueblo region of central Arizona, which indigenous tribes have occupied continuously for at least 800 years, a research team recently reconstructed the climatic, vegetational, and erosional cycles of past centuries. The researchers found it impossible to provide a single, generally applicable characterization of environmental conditions for the region. Rather, they found that local areas experienced different patterns of rainfall, wind, and erosion, and that such conditions had prevailed in the Southwest for the last 1,400 years. Rainfall, for example, varied within and between local valley systems, so that even adjacent agricultural fields can produce significantly different yields.
The researchers characterized episodes of variation in southwestern environments by frequency: low-frequency environmental processes occur in cycles longer than one human generation, which generally is considered to last about 25 years, and high-frequency processes have shorter cycles. The researchers pointed out that low-frequency processes, such as fluctuations in stream flow and groundwater levels, would not usually be apparent to human populations. In contrast, high-frequency fluctuations such as seasonal temperature variations are observable and somewhat predictable, so that groups could have adapted their behaviors accordingly. When the researchers compared sequences of sociocultural change in the Western Pueblo region with episodes of low- and high-frequency environmental variation, however, they found no simple correlation between environmental process and sociocultural change or persistence.
Although early Pueblo peoples did protect themselves against environmental risk and uncertainty, they responded variously on different occasions to similar patterns of high-frequency climatic and environmental change. The researchers identified seven major adaptive responses, including increased mobility, relocation of permanent settlements, changes in subsistence foods, and reliance on trade with other groups. These findings suggest that groups' adaptive choices depended on cultural and social as well as environmental factors and were flexible strategies rather than uncomplicated reactions to environmental change. Environmental conditions mattered, but they were rarely, if ever, sufficient to account for sociocultural persistence and change. Group size and composition, culture, contact with other groups, and individual choices and actions were—barring catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes—more significant for a population's survival than were climate and environment.

21. The passage is primarily concerned with ______.

A.explaining why certain research findings have created controversy
B.pointing out the flaws in a research methodology and suggesting a different approach
C.presenting evidence to challenge an explanation and offering an alternative explanation
D.elucidating the means by which certain groups have adapted to their environment
E.defending a long-held interpretation by presenting new research findings

[考点] 主旨的理解
[解析] 1．做题分析
①Until recently, many anthropologists assumed that the environment of what is now the Southwestern United States shaped the social history and culture of the region's indigenous peoples. ②Building on this assumption, archaeologists asserted that adverse environmental conditions and droughts were responsible for the disappearances and migrations of southwestern populations from many sites they once inhabited.
③However, such deterministic arguments fail to acknowledge that local environmental variability in the Southwest makes generalizing about that environment difficult.④To examine the relationship between environmental variation and sociocultural change in the Western Pueblo region of central Arizona, which indigenous tribes have occupied continuously for at least 800 years, a research team recently reconstructed the climatic, vegetational, and erosional cycles of past centuries. ⑤The researchers found it impossible to provide a single, generally applicable characterization of environmental conditions for the region.⑥Rather, they found that local areas experienced different patterns of rainfall, wind, and erosion, and that such conditions had prevailed in the Southwest for the last 1,400 years.⑦Rainfall, for example, varied within and between local valley systems, so that even adjacent agricultural fields can produce significantly different yields.
⑧The researchers characterized episodes of variation in southwestern environments by frequency: low-frequency environmental processes occur in cycles longer than one human generation, which generally is considered to last about 25 years, and high-frequency processes have shorter cycles.⑨The researchers pointed out that low-frequency processes, such as fluctuations in stream flow and groundwater levels, would not usually be apparent to human populations.⑩In contrast, high-frequency fluctuations such as seasonal temperature variations are observable and somewhat predictable, so that groups could have adapted their behaviors accordingly.⑪When the researchers compared sequences of sociocultural change in the Western Pueblo region with episodes of low- and high-frequency environmental variation, however, they found no simple correlation between environmental process and sociocultural change or persistence.
⑫Although early Pueblo peoples did protect themselves against environmental risk and uncertainty, they responded variously on different occasions to similar patterns of high-frequency climatic and environmental change.⑬The researchers identified seven major adaptive responses, including increased mobility, relocation of permanent settlements, changes in subsistence foods, and reliance on trade with other groups.⑭These findings suggest that groups' adaptive choices depended on cultural and social as well as environmental factors and were flexible strategies rather than uncomplicated reactions to environmental change. ⑮Environmental conditions mattered, but they were rarely, if ever, sufficient to account for sociocultural persistence and change.⑯Group size and composition, culture, contact with other groups, and individual choices and actions were—barring catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes—more significant for a population's survival than were climate and environment.
2．文章结构
这是一篇典型的新旧观点类型的文章。由第一句的many anthropologists assumed可以知道，第一段是旧观点。文章后面很可能会反驳这个观点，同时提出新观点。
3．文章精析
第一段：提出旧观点，认为环境是影响一个地区居民生存的重要因素。
①提出旧观点，认为环境是一个影响美国西南部历史(history)、文化(culture)和当地居民(indigenous peoples)的重要因素。
②细节，略读。上一句是抽象的，这一句是具体的。this assumption指的是上一句话的结论，所以考古学家认为恶劣的环境(adverse environmental conditions)造成了美国西南部居民的消失和迁徙(disappearances and migrations)，这句话里有一个常见的表达方式：A is responsible for B，即A是B的原因。
第二段：这一段主要讲上述理论的一个问题，即忽略了环境问题的多变性，并以频率为分类标准讨论了不同环境条件的影响。也就是开始反驳旧观点。
③出现取反词However，开始反驳上面的旧观点。这句话是本段的主题句。这个句子的主干是：such deterministic arguments fail to acknowledge that...，大意是旧观点没有考虑环境的多变性(local environmental variability)导致概括环境的影响变得困难这个问题。
④没有取反词，这句话是细节。为了检验Pueblo西部的环境因素(environmental variation)和社会文化变化(sociocultural change)的关系，科学家对于这个问题进行了研究。这句话有两个部分需要略读：(1)which部分属于插入语，修饰Arizona，属于细节的细节；(2)后半句climatic，vegetational，and erosional cycles都是environmental variation的具体例子，可以不用一一理解。
⑤没有取反词，这句话是细节，大意是这些研究发现，对于当地的环境条件很难用简单的概括性特征去描述。这证明了上一句提到的environmental variation。
⑥Rather可以理解为递进。Rather前后两句话往往是一个意思的。当然，Rather一词的意思是：更确切地说；还不如说；相反。You use rather when you are correcting something that you have just said, especially when you are describing a particular situation after saying what it is not.例如：Twenty million years ago, Idaho was not the arid place it is now. Rather, it was warm and damp，populated by dense primordial forest. 2000万年前，爱达荷州并不像现在这样干旱。相反，那时的爱达荷州温暖潮湿，有大片的原始森林。
⑦没有取反词，这句话是细节，这里以降雨为例论证上述观点。插入语补充说明降雨形式视山谷形貌的不同而不同，所以即便是相邻的(adjacent)农田产量也可能不同。其中农田产量也是sociocultural change的一个具体方面。
第三段：这段具体讲科学家的研究，他们把环境问题分成经常发生的和不经常发生的，并且分别阐述了它们对当地社会的影响。大家要明白，这些都是用来反驳旧观点的方法或者手段。
⑧这句话是本段主旨，研究者们按照发生频率把环境变化分类(characterized by frequency)，冒号表示解释说明，后面的内容属于细节，详细说明哪些是高频事件或低频事件：低频事件发生的周期长于一代人的时间，通常为25年；高频事件发生的周期要短一些，也就是小于25年。
⑨没有取反词，这句话是细节，说明了研究结果。对于低频事件，such as后面是细节，要对具体例子出现的位置有印象：例如溪水和地下水的涨落，对于居民的影响不会很明显(not usually be apparent)。
⑩In contrast表示对比，说明这句话描述的是高频事件。对于像每个季节中温度的变化(seasonal temperature variations)这样经常发生的事，它们的影响相对显著(observable)而且可以预测，所以当地居民(groups，是上一句human populations的同义替换)会根据这些事件调整自己的行为(adapted their behaviors accordingly)。
⑪虽然句子中有取反词however，但是这句话是细节。当科学家对比社会变迁和环境变化时，他们这两者的关系并不简单(no simple correlation)。这里however是事件之中的转折，而不是提出新的内容：前文主要说科学家发现社会变迁和环境变化是有关系的，后文说这种关系并没有那么简单。
第四段：这一段主要写科学家对Pueblo居民对环境变化的适应情况的发现以及由此延伸出的结论，也就是提出了新观点。
⑫Although强调的是后半句，本身所在的部分为细节：不同情形下，Pueblo居民对于相似的高频环境变化反应也不同，重点是responded variously。细节精读：Although部分对应的是第一段的disappearances and migrations：虽然Pueblo居民没有避开环境带来问题(risk and uncertainty简单理解即可)。
⑬没有取反词，这句话是细节。研究者发现了七种主要的适应方式(adaptive responses)，包括增加流动性(increased mobility，也就是migrations)，搬家(relocation，也是一种migrations)，改变食物以及和别人贸易(trade)。
⑭没有取反词，这句话是细节。These findings指的是上文科学家的发现，这句话的从句比较长，并列关系很多，它的主干是A were B rather than C：A是B而不是C，其中B和C很好理解：B是flexible strategies：灵活的策略；C是uncomplicated reactions to environmental change：针对环境做出的简单的反应；A比较复杂，主体是groups' adaptive choices，是adaptive responses的同义替换，depended on是补充信息，是上文的重复，即这些针对文化(cultural)、社会(social)和环境因素(environmental factors)做出的反应。
⑮没有取反词，这句话是细节。(虽然)环境因素会发挥作用(mattered)，但是只有它们并不足以解释(rarely sufficient)社会文化的存在和变迁(sociocultural persistence and change)。
⑯没有取反词，提出新观点。这里列举了其他影响因素，不必一一理解，两个破折号之间是补充信息，是细节，但是这里出现了一个重点词barring：除了，所以这里说的是不包括自然灾害(catastrophes)的环境因素。这句话的主干是其他因素比环境因素更能影响到一个地区居民的生存(population's survival)。所以整篇文章的写作目的达到了，就是用来反驳旧观点。然后得出了新观点：比起气候和环境，这些因素，例如group size and composition, culture, contact with other groups, and individual choices and actions等更加显著。
题型：主旨题
文章的讨论主题是环境因素对社会的影响，行文思路如下：环境影响很重要一实际的环境影响很复杂—环境影响没有其他因素重要，是一个逐步否定第一段观点再提出另一个观点的过程。所有选项中C选项中的challenge an explanation(否定第一个观点)和offering an alternative explanation(提出新观点)最接近理想的答案。答案是C。大家思考一下，为什么是explanation，什么情况下用explanation这个词。笔者的理解是，explanation表示因果逻辑关系，原文里旧观点其实也存在因果逻辑关系：环境决定/塑造了当地的文化和历史。这篇文章探讨的其实就是，到底是什么决定/塑造/导致了当地的文化和历史。文章最后给了explanation (group size and composition, culture, contact with other groups, and individual choices and actions)。

22. Which of the following findings would most strongly support the assertion made by the archaeologists mentioned in line 3? ______

A.A population remained in a certain region at least a century after erosion wore away much of the topsoil that sustained grass for their grazing animals.
B.The range of a certain group's agricultural activity increased over a century of gradual decrease in annual rainfall.
C.As winters grew increasingly mild in a certain region, the nomadic residents of the region continued to move between their summer and winter encampments.
D.An agricultural population began to trade for supplies of a grain instead of producing the grain in its own fields as it had in the past.
E.A half century of drought and falling groundwater levels caused a certain population to abandon their settlements along a riverbank.

[考点] 细节的理解
[解析] 题型：逻辑论证题
首先要理解第三行考古学家的观点：环境因素造成了居民的迁徙，所以正确的选项必须满足两个条件：(1)有环境因素；(2)造成了居民的离开(或者至少是一件坏事)。A选项中说居民在某个地区定居了(remained in a certain region)，不符合第二个条件，错误；B选项提到农业活动(agricultural activity)增加，不符合第二个条件，错误；C选项提到continued，没有体现状态的改变，错误；D选项没提到环境因素，不符合第一个条件，错误；E选项符合全部两个条件，正确。答案是E。

23. The fact that "adjacent agricultural fields can produce significantly different yields" (lines 15-16) is offered as evidence of the ______.

A.unpredictability of the climate and environment of the southwestern United States
B.difficulty of producing a consistent food supply for a large population in the Western Pueblo region
C.lack of water and land suitable for cultivation in central Arizona
D.local climatic variation in the environment of the southwestern United States
E.high-frequency environmental processes at work in the southwestern United States

[考点] 细节的理解和作用
[解析] 题型：细节目的题
题目问得很直接，这段话以for example开头，出现的位置在一个结论性的句子Rather, they found that local areas experienced different patterns of rainfall, wind, and erosion之后，所以明显是证明这个结论的。这个句子强调的重点是different patterns，所以正确选项中必须要体现出来，只有D选项的variation符合，答案是D。

24. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following activities is NOT an example of a population responding to high-frequency environmental processes? ______

A.Developing watertight jars in which to collect and store water during the rainy season
B.Building multistory dwellings in low-lying areas to avoid the flash flooding that occurs each summer
C.Moving a village because groundwater levels have changed over the last generation
D.Trading with other groups for furs from which to make winter clothes
E.Moving one's herds of grazing animals each year between summer and winter pastures

[考点] 细节的定位和理解
[解析] 题型：排除题
这道题的问法是“哪个不是”，所以最好使用排除法，这道题的判断标准有两个：(1)必须是人类活动；(2)必须是high-frequency environmental processes，其中第一条不是很好判断，虽然最后一段给出了几个具体例子increased mobility, relocation of permanent settlements, changes in subsistence foods, and reliance on trade with other groups，但是它们是七个主要活动(seven major adaptive responses)的一部分，所以很难直接根据原文排除；第二条在第三段分别给出了高频和低频的例子，如果选项里是低频则可以直接排除。所有选项中C选项里的groundwater levels可以明确确定为低频的事件，答案是C。这种题，大家思考一下，最好的方法是什么?举个例子，文章里有两组学生，一组是男的：A和B，另外一组是女的：a，b，c...。题目是：选一个不是女的选项。选项是：A，a，b，c…。这个时候，最好的方法肯定是选是男的即可，马上选A，而不是从原文里一一找女生，然后再排除。

Verbal Reasoning

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