12. INVENTION is a form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.
16. The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of COMPOSITIONALITY.
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[解析] 本题考查组合原则。句子意义通常由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定的观点通常叫做组合原则。
17. When you use your own sentence with a meaning other than the conceptual, the meaning is sometimes referred to as speaker's meaning, or contextual meaning.
18. Metonymy is a kind of figurative language which is usually classed as a type of synecdoche. It refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa, as the use of "hands" in "We are short of hands".
19. AUTHORIAL STYLE looks closely at how linguistic choices help to construct textual meaning. When we examine it, we will need to examine linguistic choices which are intrinsically connected with meaning and effect on the reader.
20. The structural syllabus does not have a strong linguistic basis. The aim of the structural syllabus is specifying the situations in which the target language is used.
Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word with the hint of the initial letter
1. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and C of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness.
8. Some sentences do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The utterance of these sentences is or is a part of the doing of an action. They are called p .
17. There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, sameness relation, opposite- ness relation and inclusiveness relation. They are represented by ______ respectively.
By creativity, language is designed to make its users form and understand an infinite sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard．For instance, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly: "He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who...".
The cardinal vowels put forward by Daniel Jones are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
Ogden and Richards presented the classic "Semantic Triangle" as manifested in the following diagram, in which the "symbol" or "form" refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the "referent" refers to the object in the world of experience, and "thought" or "reference" refers to concept or notion. Thus, the symbol a word signifies "things" by virtue of the "concept", associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The "concept" thus considered is meaning of the word.
Cohort theory is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input; the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner.
Computer-assisted language leaming refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. According to Richards et al (1998), it may take the form of: activities which parallel learning through other media but which use the facilities of the computer; activities which are extensions or adaptations of print-based or classroom based activities; actitivities which are unique to CALL.
To expand the concept of competence, D. H. Hymes proposes communicative competence, which has four components: possibility, feasibility, appropriateness and performance. In Hymes' view, the learner acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical but also as appropriate. It stresses the context in which an utterance occurs, which also leads to a concentration on discourse, in Hymes' term linguistic routines—the sequential organization beyond sentences.
1. Illustrate lexical change proper with the latest examples in English, covering at least four aspects.
New words or expressions are created through the following processes, apart from compound and derivation. (1)Invention Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak,Coke, nylon, Xeros Frigidaire, granola, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities. (2)Blending Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial paint of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, transfer + resister → transistor; smoke + fog → smog. Blending can also occur at a high cognitive level. From the similarity in the two expressions She was on the verge of a crackup and she was on the verge of hreakctown, the confusion of crack up and break down leads to the coining of crackdown. The same is true of riffle (ripple + shuffle), and rampacious (rampageous + rapacious). This sort of blending is labeled specially as fusion. (3)Abbreviation A great number of English words have undergone the process of abbreviation in their etymological history. It is also called clipping, that is, a new word is created by cutting the final part (or with a slight variation) (eg. advertisement → ad), or cutting the initial part (eg. aeroplane → plane), or cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly (eg. influenza → flu). Abbreviation is also popular in educational domain, such as chem for chemistry, exam for examination, gym for gymnasium, lab for laboratory, math for mathematics, etc. (4)Acronym Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. CIA, WTO, WHO, FBI are the examples. This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. For example, Aids ← acquired immune deficiency syndrome; Radar ← radio detecting and ranging; MANIAC ← mathematical analyzer numerical integrator and computer; COBOL ← common business oriented language; WASP ← white Anglo-Saxon protestant; VAT ← value added tax. (5)Back-formation Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Take televise for example, the word television predated the occurrence of the word televise. The frst part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language. For example, enthusiasm → enthuse; gangling → gangle; editor → edit; peddler → peddle; hawker → hawk; laser → iase; cahnative → cahn. (6)Analogical creation The principle of Analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. For instance, people know quite well that the past tense suffix for English verb should heed, and they tend to apply it to all verbs. As a result, we have both the old forms and the new forms for many English verbs. For example, work → wrought / worked; beseech → besought / beseeched; slay → slew / slayed. (7)Borrowing English in its development has managed to widen hcr vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process. Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from various sources. For example, Greek: flokati, epilepsy; Latin: cancer, tumor; French: mortgage, entail; Spanish: junta, macho; Italian: autostrada, cica; German: rankfurther, hamburger; Chinese: taji, tea; Japanese: Jodo
This notion of immediate constituents was proposed by the American linguist Leonard Boomfield in his Language, first published in 1993. Immediate constituent analysis may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. In practice, however, for sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets as: (a)((poor) (john)) ((ran) (away)) It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: (b) IC analysis emphasizes the function of the intermediate level—word group, seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence as well. It has both advantages and disadvantages. Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence maybe demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. However, there are also problelns in IC analysis. First, at the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible. Second, constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. In English yes/no questions, the auxiliary verb will be separated from the main verb and moved to the front of the subject, but it belongs together with the other parts of the predicate in the analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.
3. Illustrate the significance of studying speech Sounds in linguistics.
Human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of them of these sounds have become units in the language system. Language is first and foremost a "system of vocal symbols", as we have seen in the discussion of language. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises. For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.
The Q-and R-principles, developed by Laurence Horn, were first proposed in his "Toward a New Taxonomy for Pragmatic Inference: Q-Based and R-Based Implicatures" of 1984, and further elaborated in his Pragmatic Theory of 1988. The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grice's Quantity, and the R-principle the Relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims. The two principles are proposed by Horn on the basis of two competing forces, the force of unification, or speaker's economy, and the force of diversification, or hearer's economy. The Q-principle (hearer-based): Make your contribution sufficient (cf. Quantity 1) Say as much as you can (given R) The R-principle (speaker-based): Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity2, Manner) Say no more than you must (given Q) The hear-based Q-principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to. In the following example, (a) implicates (b). e.g.a. Some of my friends are linguists. b. Not all of my friends are linguists. The R-principle, in contrast, encourages the hearer to infer that more is meant. e.g. Canyou please close the door? If this sentence is said in a context in which the speaker knows that the hearer's ability to do this (close the door) is not in doubt, then the hearer is licensed to infer that the speaker is doing something more than just asking him about his ability (to close the door), the speaker actually asks him to perform the act. Q-based principle can be cancelled by metalinguistic negation, which does not affect what is said, but R-based implicatures cannot. e.g. a. He didn't eat three carrots. b. He ate less than three carrots. Sentence (a) usually means sentence (b). If we stress "three" in sentence (c), which is known as metalinguistic negation, then (b) is cancelled, and we can follow it with (d) c. He didn't eat THREE carrots. d. He ate FOUR of them.
5. Illustrate at least four major linguistic views and their significance in language learning and teaching.
1)Traditional grammar Traditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description and a pre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language. Prescription was its key tone. 2)Structuralist linguistics Modern linguistics, in spite of theoretical diversitie's, is primarily descriptive. Structuralist linguistics describes linguistics features in terms of structures and systems. It describes the current spoken language, which people use in daily communication. Its focus, however, is still on grammatical structures. 3)Transformational-generative (TG) linguistics TG grammar sees language as a system of innate rules. A native speaker possesses a linguistic competence, or a language acquisition device. Although Chomsky does not intend to make his model a representation of performance, i.e., the language actually used in communication, applied linguistics find TG grammar useful in certain aspects. But because it is a formal and abstract grammar, it remains limited in language teaching. 4)Functional linguistics Taking a semantic-sociolinguistic approach, M. A. K. Halliday's systemic-functional linguistics sees language as an instrument used to perform various functions in social interaction. It concerns not only with the formal system of language but also the functions of language in society, and its scope is wider than that of former theories. 5)The theory of communicative competence The concept competence originally comes from Chomsky. It refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do with the actual use of language in concrete situations. This concept of linguistic competence has been criticized for being too narrow. To expand the concept of competence, D. H. Hymes (1971) proposes communicative competence, which has four components: a)Possibility—the ability to produce grammatical sentences; b)Feasibility—the ability to produce sentences which can be decoded by the human brain; c)Appropriateness—the ability to use correct forms of language in a specific socio-cultural context; d)Performance—the fact that the utterance is completed.
，如tile-toil；/P/-/b/，如pin-bin；/s/-/z/，如bus-buzz等。
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