12. The illocutionary point of ______ has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this kind brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.
A.directives
B.declarations
C.commissives
D.representatives
A B C D
B
[解析] 宣告类的特点在于此类行为的顺利实施使得客观现实与所表达的命题内容相一致。
13. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called ______.
15. Y's utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of ______. X: Who was that you were with last night? Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?
A.quality
B.quantity
C.relation
D.manner
A B C D
C
[解析] 此对话违反了关联准则。说这话时，很显然，B不想说关于A提到的人物，所以说了一句不相关的话，他的言外之意是：“I don't wish to talk about whom I was with last night”。
16. The utterance "We're already working 25 hours a day, eight days a week." obviously violates the maxim of ______.
A.quality
B.quantity
C.relation
D.manner
A B C D
A
[解析] 会话中的质量原则中指明不要说自知是虚假的话。25 hours a day和eight days a week很明显冒犯了质量原则。
17. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by ______.
2. The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in c______ and traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from use.
context
[解析] 语义学和语用学都是关于意义的研究，它们的根本区别在于意义研究是否考虑语境。
3. Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of m______, but what distinguishes them is whether the context of use is considered.
meaning
[解析] 语义学和语用学都是关于意义的研究，它们的根本区别在于意义研究是否考虑语境。
4. While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an u______ is concrete and contextdependent.
5. Traditionally philosophers had been interested in the t______ of sentence, i.e. how to judge whether a sentence is true or false; they believed that a statement was used either to state a factor or to describe a state of affairs.
10. According to Searle's classification of illocutionary acts, "I swear I have never seen the man before" is among the most typical examples of the r______.
representatives
[解析] 阐述类的言外之意是使说话人对自己所说的内容的真实性作出承诺。换句话说，在实施阐述类的言外行为时，说话人对他自己相信是真实的情况进行陈述或表述。陈述、相信、发誓、假设都是最典型的阐述类。I swear I have never seen the man before.为阐述类言外行为。
11. The illocutionary point of e______ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance expresses his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.
expressives
[解析] 约翰·舍尔的五种基本类型中，表达类指说话人对现存事态表明自己的感受或态度。
12. According to Searle's classification of illocutionary acts, "to suggest that someone should see the doctor" should fall into the category of d______.
15. The significance of Grice's C______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literally said.
Cooperative
[解析] 格赖斯合作原则的意义在于，它解释了说话人为何能够表达出超出字面意义的信息。
Ⅲ. Directions:Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false.
1. Of the views concerning the study of semantics, the contextual view, which places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used, is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.
2. Linguists found that it would be possible to give an adequate description of meaning even if the context of language use was left unconsidered.
对 错
B
[解析] 语言学家发现，如果不考虑语境，就不可能对意义作出令人满意的描述。一旦把语境概念考虑进来，语义学就发展成了语用学。改正：Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.
3. According to Austin's classification of perlocutionary acts, speech acts fall into five general categories, which are representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations.
对 错
B
[解析] 舍尔的贡献之一在于他对言外行为的分类，这是奥斯汀曾经想做却没有做到的。根据舍尔的理论，言语分为5种基本类型，即我们运用语言所做的事情有5种基本类型，每种类型都有一个共同的基本目的，这五种类型包括：阐述类、指令类、承诺类、表达类、宣告类。改正：According to Searle's classification of illocutionary acts, speech acts fall into five general categories, which are representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations.
4. Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning.
9. Paul Grice made a distinction between that he called "constatives" and "performatives".
对 错
B
[解析] 言语行为理论是语用学研究中的一个重要理论。它是英国哲学家约翰·奥斯汀在20世纪50年代末提出来的。他曾对所说的表述可和施为句进行了区分。表述句要么用于陈述，要么用于描述，可以验证；另一方面，施为句既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证。改正：John Austin made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives".
10. Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
14. According to Searle's classification of illocutionary acts, inviting, ordering, advising, promising and apologizing all fall into the category of directives.
对 错
B
[解析] 指令类的言外之意是说话人试图让听话人做某事。邀请、建议、请求、警告、威胁、命令都是典型的指令类。承诺类的言外之意是使说话人在说出某话语时对未来行为作出承诺、承担义务。允诺、承担、许愿都是最典型的承诺类。表达类的言外之意是特指在话语里表达说话人的心理状态。说话人表达的是他对现存事态的情感或者态度。比如，道歉、致谢、祝贺。改正：Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Thus, inviting, suggesting and advising are directives, while promising and apologizing are not. The illocutionary point of promising is to commit the speaker to some future course of action and the illocutionary point of apologizing is to express the psychological state. Thus they belong to commissives and expressives respectively.
15. Apologizing, thanking, congratulating are the illocutionary point of expressives.
16. Searle's classification of illocutionary acts is based on the classification of performative verbs.
对 错
B
[解析] 舍尔的贡献之一在于他对言外行为的分类。根据舍尔的理论，言语分为5种基本类型，即我们运用语言所做的事情有5种基本类型。改正：Searle's classification is not based on the classification of performative verbs but on the illocutionary point of each act.
17. Paul Grice thought that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate.
18. Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implicatures arise.
Ⅳ.Define the following terms, giving example for illustration if necessary.
1. pragmatics
Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types. the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world.
Sentence meaning refers to the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and de-contextualized. For example, semantic analysis of the sentence meaning of "The bag is heavy" results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEAVY).
Speech act theory, proposed by J. Austin and J. Searle, is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It aims to answer the question "What do we do when using language?" Austin suggested a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. The speech act theory provided great philosophical insight into the nature of linguistic communication.
Locutionary act refers to the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. For example, by saying "You have left the door wide open", the locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean.
[解析] 言内行为是说出词、短语、分句。通过句法、词汇和音位等手段表达字面意义的行为。
7. declarations
Declarations are one of the five general types of things we do with language. They have the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality, e.g. I now declare the meeting open.
Expressives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example, "I'm sorry for the mess I've made", "It's really kind of you to have thought of me."
The Cooperative Principle was proposed by a logician and philosopher, Paul Grice. His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, and the maxim of manner.
1. Discuss the relationship between pragmatics and semantics.
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. For example, the grammatical analysis of "He likes to go there" does not tell us who he is, where "there" is. So we can see that the context of situation in which a sentence or utterance occurs means a lot to its meaning, which can hardly be explained by grammatical means, or by semantic means. So semantics aims at studying "What does X mean?", while pragmatics aims at studying "What do you mean by saying X?".
2. Make an analysis on sentence meaning and utterance meaning.
A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a context. For example, "My bag is heavy." Grammatical analysis of this sentence is simple. Then the utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. It could be a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that this bag is heavy. It could also be an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Other interpretations of this utterance are possible in other contexts.
3. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples to show how the flouting of these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature (Give at least two examples, each flouting a different maxim).
The four maxims of the cooperative principle are maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of manner and maxim of relation. Example 1A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think? B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they? This is said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature produced is "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner." Example 2A: Shall we get something for the kids? B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "icecream". Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The implicature produced is "I don't want the kids to know we are talking about icecream."
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