Critical Reasoning(批判性推理) Each of the critical reasoning questions is based on a short argument, a set of statements, or a plan of action. For each question, select the best answer of the choices given.
1. Neuroscientist: Memory evolved to help animals react appropriately to situations they encounter by drawing on the past experience of similar situations. But this does not require that animals perfectly recall every detail of all their experiences. Instead, to function well, memory should generalize from past experiences that are similar to the current one. The neuroscientist's statements, if true, most strongly support which of the following conclusions?
A.At least some animals perfectly recall every detail of at least some past experiences.
B.Perfectly recalling every detail of all their past experiences could help at least some animals react more appropriately than they otherwise would to new situations they encounter.
C.Generalizing from past experiences requires clear memories of most if not all the details of those experiences.
D.Recalling every detail of all past experiences would be incompatible with any ability to generalize from those experiences.
E.Animals can often react more appropriately than they otherwise would to situations they encounter if they draw on generalizations from past experiences of similar situations.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation A neuroscientist claims that memory evolved to help animals learn how to react appropriately by generalizing from past experiences but that this does not require animals to remember all details of those experiences. Reasoning What conclusion would the neuroscientist's theory about memory most strongly support? The neuroscientist asserts that the evolutionary function of memory is to help animals learn to react appropriately by drawing on generalizations from similar experiences they have had. If memory is to serve this function, drawing on generalizations must actually help animals learn to react more appropriately than they otherwise would, even when they do not remember all the details of past experiences. A Even if no animal ever recalls all the details of any past experience, animals could still learn through generalizations, as the neuroscientist claims. B This statement could be false even if all of what the neuroscientist says is true. Even if it were never helpful for any animal to recall every detail of all its past experiences, animals could still benefit by learning through generalizations. C Generalizations from experiences might be made while the experiences are occurring, so that only the generalizations and not the details need to be remembered. D The neuroscientist only claims that remembering perfect details is not required for memory to serve its function, not that such perfect recall is incompatible with memory serving its function. E Correct. If the evolutionary function of memory is to help animals react more appropriately by drawing on generalizations from past experiences, it follows that animal memories can often successfully serve this function in this manner. The correct answer is E.
2. Astronomer: Most stars are born in groups of thousands, each star in a group forming from the same parent cloud of gas. Each cloud has a unique, homogeneous chemical composition. Therefore, whenever two stars have the same chemical composition as each other, they must have originated from the same cloud of gas. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the astronomer's argument?
A.In some groups of stars, not every star originated from the same parent cloud of gas.
B.Clouds of gas of similar or identical chemical composition may be remote from each other.
C.Whenever a star forms, it inherits the chemical composition of its parent cloud of gas.
D.Many stars in vastly different parts of the universe are quite similar in their chemical compositions.
E.Astronomers can at least sometimes precisely determine whether a star has the same chemical composition as its parent cloud of gas.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Most stars are born in groups, any one of which forms from a parent gas cloud with a unique, homogenous chemical composition. Reasoning What would be additional evidence that any two stars with the same chemical composition originated from the same gas cloud? The implicit reasoning is that since the chemical composition of each gas cloud is unique and homogenous, any two stars that formed from gas with the same chemical composition must have originated from the same cloud. The astronomer then infers that if two stars have the same composition now, they must have originated from the same cloud. This inference requires the assumption that the composition each star has now depends only on the composition of the cloud in which it originated. Any evidence that supports this assumption will strengthen the argument. A Whether or not stars born in different clouds of gas are ever in the same "group" is not clearly relevant to whether or not they ever have the same chemical composition. B How remote clouds of similar compositions are from each other is not clearly relevant to whether stars that have the same chemical composition may have formed from different clouds of gas. Also, the suggestion that different gas clouds may have identical compositions conflicts with the astronomer's premise that the composition of each cloud from which stars form is unique. C Correct. If each star's composition is identical to that of its parent cloud, and each cloud's composition is unique, then any two stars identical in composition must have formed from the same parent cloud. D If anything, this would suggest that stars with the same composition might have formed from different clouds, so it would weaken rather than strengthen the argument. E If astronomers could do this, they might be able to obtain additional evidence for or against the position taken in the argument, but this, in itself, provides no reason to suppose that the evidence would support, rather than weaken, that position. They might find that the stars' compositions do not precisely correlate with the compositions of the stars' parent gas clouds. The correct answer is C.
3. With employer-paid training, workers have the potential to become more productive not only in their present employment but also in any number of jobs with different employers. To increase the productivity of their workforce, many firms are planning to maintain or even increase their investments in worker training. But some training experts object that if a trained worker is hired away by another firm, the employer that paid for the training has merely subsidized a competitor. They note that such hiring has been on the rise in recent years. Which of the following would, if true, contribute most to defeating the training experts' objection to the firms' strategy?
A.Firms that promise opportunities for advancement to their employees get, on average, somewhat larger numbers of job applications from untrained workers than do firms that make no such promise.
B.In many industries, employees who take continuing-education courses are more competitive in the job market.
C.More and more educational and training institutions are offering reduced tuition fees to firms that subsidize worker training.
D.Research shows that workers whose training is wholly or partially subsidized by their employer tend to get at least as much training as do workers who pay for all their own training.
E.For most firms that invest in training their employees, the value added by that investment in employees who stay exceeds the value lost through other employees' leaving to work for other companies.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation Many firms pay to train their workers in order to increase their workforces' productivity. But in recent years firms have been increasingly hiring away from each other workers who have had such training. Reasoning What would most help address the concern that firms that pay to train workers are thereby subsidizing competitors that hire away those workers? In order for the employer-paid training to be worthwhile for a given firm despite the risk of subsidizing competitors that may hire away the trained workers, that firm has to gain more benefits from the training than it loses by subsidizing such competitors. Any evidence that this is true for most firms would help to address the experts' concern. A A typical firm does not necessarily want larger numbers of applications from unqualified workers. And if hired, those workers can still be hired away by competitors after the firm has paid to train them, just as the experts warned. B This suggests that in many industries, companies, rather than investing in employee training, prefer to hire employees who already have specifically relevant training (perhaps funded by other companies). If anything, this slightly supports, rather than defeats, the training experts' view. No firm has an interest in making its own employees more competitive in the job market unless the firm is likely to benefit from their being so. C Even firms that pay reduced tuition fees for worker training may lose the money they pay for those fees and effectively subsidize competitors that hire the trained employees away. So this does not defeat the training experts' objection. D The more highly trained workers—regardless of whether their training was company subsidized or not—would presumably be prime targets for recruitment by competing firms, just as the experts warned. The research finding in question does not help defeat the experts' objection. E Correct. This explicitly indicates that most firms gain more than they lose from the general practice of firms paying to train their workers. The correct answer is E.
4. Candle Corporation's television stations are likely to have more income from advertisers than previously. This is because advertisers prefer to reach people in the 18- to 49-year-old age group and the number of people in that group watching Candle television is increasing. Furthermore, among Candle viewers, the percentage of viewers 18 to 49 years old is increasing. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument that Candle Corporation will receive more income from advertisers?
A.Advertisers carefully monitor the demographic characteristics of television audiences and purchase advertising time to reach the audiences they prefer to reach.
B.Among people over 49 years old, fewer viewers of Candle stations buy products advertised on television than do viewers of other stations.
C.There will be increasingly more advertisements on television that are directed at viewers who are over 49 years old.
D.Candle stations plan to show reruns of television shows during hours when other stations run shows for the first time.
E.People 18 to 49 years old generally have less disposable income to spend than do people over 49 years old.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Both the number and the percentage of Candle television viewers who are 18 to 49 years old are increasing. Advertisers prefer to reach people in this age group. Reasoning What evidence, when combined with the cited facts, would most support the prediction that Candle will receive more income from advertisers? The argument assumes that the increasing number and percentage of Candle viewers in the age group that advertisers prefer to reach will probably encourage advertisers to spend more on advertising with Candle. This assumption could be supported by evidence that the advertisers realize that Candle is getting more viewers in that preferred age range or by evidence that this awareness will influence the advertisers' purchase of advertising time. A Correct. Advertisers monitoring demographics will probably realize that Candle has increasing numbers of viewers in their preferred age range. If they purchase advertising to reach viewers in that age range, then they will probably purchase more advertising time with Candle. B This gives advertisers less reason to advertise on Candle to reach viewers over 49 years old. Other things being equal, that makes Candle likely to receive less income from advertisers, not more income. C Since the percentage of Candle viewers 18 to 49 years old is growing, the percentage over 49 years old is probably shrinking. This could make advertisers seeking to reach older viewers less inclined to advertise on Candle even as they increase their overall television advertising. D Advertisers are not necessarily inclined to purchase more advertising during showings of reruns than during original airings of television shows and may even be inclined to purchase less advertising during such showings. E This gives advertisers less incentive to try to reach audiences between 18 and 49 years old and hence less reason to purchase advertising on Candle. The correct answer is A.
5. A provincial government plans to raise the gasoline tax to give people an incentive to drive less, reducing traffic congestion in the long term. However, skeptics point out that most people in the province live in areas where cars are the only viable transportation to jobs and stores and therefore cannot greatly change their driving habits in response to higher gasoline prices. In light of the skeptics' objection, which of the following, if true, would most logically support the prediction that the government's plan will achieve its goal of reducing traffic congestion?
A.The revenue from the tax will be used to make public transportation a viable means of transportation to jobs and stores for far more people.
B.The tax will encourage many residents to switch to more fuel-efficient cars, reducing air pollution and other problems.
C.Because gasoline has been underpriced for decades, the province has many neighborhoods where cars are the only viable means of transportation.
D.Most residents who cannot greatly change their driving habits could compensate for high gasoline prices by reducing other expenses.
E.Traffic congestion is an especially serious problem for people for whom cars are the only viable means of transportation.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation A provincial government plans to raise the gasoline tax in order to reduce traffic congestion by discouraging people from driving. But skeptics point out that most people in the province have no viable form of transportation other than driving. Reasoning What would suggest that raising the gasoline tax will reduce traffic congestion even though most people in the province have no viable form of transportation other than driving? The skeptics point out that since most people in the province have no way to reach jobs or stores except by car, they will not be able to reduce their driving much even if the gasoline tax increases. Any evidence that raising the gasoline tax would reduce traffic congestion despite this obstacle would help to support the plan in light of the skeptics' objection. A Correct. If the tax will fund these public transit improvements, then far more people will have a viable means of transportation other than driving, undermining the basis of the skeptics' objection. B People switching to fuel-efficient cars would not reduce traffic congestion. C This essentially only tends to support the skeptics' objection. Unless the plan somehow helps to alleviate the necessity of driving (by, for example, making alternative transportation available), the information provided gives no reason to suppose that the higher costs would significantly reduce traffic congestion. D If residents cannot greatly change their driving habits, then the tax will not reduce traffic congestion. E This suggests that many residents in the province could benefit if the plan did reduce traffic congestion, but it does not provide a reason to believe the plan will have that effect. The correct answer is A.
6. Editorial: The roof of Northtown's municipal equipment-storage building collapsed under the weight of last week's heavy snowfall. The building was constructed recently and met local building-safety codes in every particular, except that the nails used for attaching roof supports to the building's columns were of a smaller size than the codes specify for this purpose. Clearly, this collapse exemplifies how even a single, apparently insignificant departure from safety standards can have severe consequences. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the editorial's argument?
A.The only other buildings to suffer roof collapses from the weight of the snowfall were older buildings constructed according to less exacting standards than those in the codes.
B.The amount of snow that accumulated on the roof of the equipment-storage building was greater than the predicted maximum that was used in drawing up the safety codes.
C.Because the equipment-storage building was not intended for human occupation, some safety-code provisions that would have applied to an office building did not apply to it.
D.The municipality of Northtown itself has the responsibility for ensuring that buildings constructed within its boundaries meet the provisions of the building-safety codes.
E.Because the equipment-storage building was used for storing snow-removal equipment, the building was almost completely empty when the roof collapsed.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation The roof of a recently constructed building collapsed under heavy snowfall. The only way the building did not meet safety standards was that some nails for the roof supports were smaller than prescribed by the building codes. Reasoning What would make it less likely that the building's collapse resulted from a single, apparently minor departure from safety standards? The building met safety standards except for the size of the nails. So if the collapse exemplifies how a departure from safety standards can have severe consequences, as the conclusion claims, then the size of the nails had to be responsible for the collapse. Thus, evidence that a factor other than the size of the nails could fully account for the collapse would weaken the argument. A This suggests that the snow would not have been heavy enough to collapse the roof if the construction had completely met the safety standards, so it strengthens, rather than weakens, the argument. B Correct. This suggests that the snow could have collapsed the roof even if the nails had met the safety standards, thus casting doubt on the assumption that the nails' inadequacy was responsible for the collapse. C The claim that the safety requirements for this building were weaker than some others tends slightly to strengthen, rather than weaken, the hypothesis that the bad consequences resulted partly from a failure to comply. Even if safety-code provisions for an equipment-storage building differ from those for an office building, they may still be adequate to ensure the roof's stability. D The question of who was responsible for ensuring compliance with the safety codes is irrelevant to whether a failure to comply was responsible for the roof's collapse. E This suggests that the alleged consequences of failing to meet safety standards were less severe than they could have been, but it is irrelevant to determining the cause of the collapse. The correct answer is B.
7. Political theorist: Even with the best spies, area experts, and satellite surveillance, foreign policy assessments can still lack important information. In such circumstances intuitive judgment is vital. A national leader with such judgment can make good decisions about foreign policy even when current information is incomplete, since ______. Which of the following, if true, most logically completes the argument?
A.the central reason for failure in foreign policy decision making is the absence of critical information
B.those leaders whose foreign policy decisions have been highly ranked have also been found to have good intuitive judgment
C.both intuitive judgment and good information are required for sound decision making
D.good foreign policy decisions often lead to improved methods of gathering information
E.intuitive judgment can produce good decisions based on past experience, even when there are important gaps in current information
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation National leaders sometimes must make foreign policy decisions while lacking important information. Reasoning What would most help support the claim that a national leader with intuitive judgment can make good foreign policy decisions without complete information? The word since preceding the blank indicates that the blank should be filled with a premise supporting the statement immediately before the blank. So an observation that supports the claim that a national leader with intuitive judgment can make good foreign policy decisions without complete information would logically complete the argument. A This gives us no reason to suppose that intuitive judgment helps national leaders avoid such failures. B This does not specify who ranked the foreign policy decisions, nor how they determined the rankings, so it gives us no reason to accept those rankings. For all we know, the anonymous rankers may have used the dubious rankings they created as the sole evidence for their so-called findings about which leaders have good intuitive judgment. C This implies that intuitive judgment alone is inadequate without good information, so it undermines rather than supports the claim that national leaders can make good foreign policy decisions with intuitive judgment while lacking complete information. D This gives us no reason to suppose that good foreign policy decisions can be made in the first place by leaders lacking important information. E Correct. This suggests that national leaders can make good foreign policy decisions using intuitive judgment based on their past foreign policy experience, even without complete information about the current situations they're facing. The correct answer is E.
8. During the earliest period of industrialization in Britain, steam engines were more expensive to build and operate than either windmills or water mills, the other practicable sources of power for factories. Yet despite their significant cost disadvantage, steam-powered factories were built in large numbers well before technical improvements brought their cost down. Furthermore, they were built even in regions where geographical conditions permitted the construction of wind- and water-powered factories close to major markets. Which of the following, if true, most helps to explain the proliferation of steam-powered factories during the earliest period of industrialization in Britain?
A.In many areas of Britain, there were fewer steam-powered factories than wind- or water-powered factories in the earliest period of industrialization.
B.Unlike wind-or water-powered factories, steam-powered factories were fueled with coal, which sometimes had to be transported significant distances from the mine to the site of the factory.
C.It was both difficult and expensive to convert a factory from wind power or water power to steam power.
D.In the early period of industrialization, many goods sold in towns and cities could not be mass-produced in factories.
E.In Britain, the number of sites where a wind- or water-powered factory could be built was insufficient to provide for all of the demand for factory-produced goods at the time.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Although steam engines were more expensive than windmills and water mills in early industrial Britain, many steam-powered factories were built even in regions where the construction of wind- and water-powered factories was geographically feasible. Reasoning Why might steam-powered factories have proliferated despite their cost disadvantage? Early industrialists would have needed some positive reason to choose steam over less expensive power sources for their factories. For example, steam engines might have operated faster or more effectively than windmills or water mills. Or steam engines might have received government subsidies. Or conditions restricting the number or locations of windmills and water mills might have forced industrialists to use steam power instead. A This suggests that the steam-powered factories did not initially proliferate as widely as they might have, but it does not explain why they proliferated to the extent that they did. B The inconvenience of transporting coal for steam-powered factories would have made those factories less likely to proliferate, not more likely. C The difficulty of converting factories to steam power would have made steam-powered factories less likely to proliferate, not more likely. D The technological inability to mass-produce popular products in factories would have made factories in general less likely to proliferate, including steam-powered factories. E Correct. The inadequate number of sites for wind- and water-powered factories might have encouraged early industrialists to build steam-powered factories instead, since the high demand for factory-produced goods could have made these factories profitable despite their cost disadvantage. The correct answer is E.
9. Snowmaking machines work by spraying a mist that freezes immediately on contact with cold air. Because the sudden freezing kills bacteria, QuickFreeze is planning to market a wastewater purification system that works on the same principle. The process works only when temperatures are cold, however, so municipalities using it will still need to maintain a conventional system. Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest grounds for a prediction that municipalities will buy QuickFreeze's purification system despite the need to maintain a conventional purification system as well?
A.Bacteria are not the only impurities that must be removed from wastewater.
B.Many municipalities have old wastewater purification systems that need to be replaced.
C.Conventional wastewater purification systems have not been fully successful in killing bacteria at cold temperatures.
D.During times of warm weather, when it is not in use, QuickFreeze's purification system requires relatively little maintenance.
E.Places where the winters are cold rarely have a problem of water shortage.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation QuickFreeze is planning to market wastewater purification systems that work by spraying a mist that freezes on contact with cold air. The sudden freezing kills bacteria. Because the system works only at cold temperatures, municipalities using it will still need to maintain a conventional system. Reasoning Which statement provides the strongest grounds for thinking that at least some municipalities will buy the purification system despite the need to maintain a conventional purification system as well? The passage tells us why a municipality using a QuickFreeze wastewater purification system would still need a conventional system. But why would a municipality want the QuickFreeze system in addition to a conventional system? If conventional systems are not fully effective at cold temperatures, the QuickFreeze system would allow municipalities that sometimes experience cold temperatures to purify their wastewater more effectively. A There is no basis in the passage for determining whether the QuickFreeze system will help remove impurities other than bacteria from wastewater. If it does not, this answer choice implies that the QuickFreeze system would not be sufficient for purifying wastewater. This would actually undermine the prediction. B The passage states that municipalities using the QuickFreeze system would still need a conventional system. Thus, the old conventional wastewater systems would still need to be replaced with new conventional systems. This answer choice provides no reason to think municipalities would buy the QuickFreeze system. C Correct. This statement, if true, would strengthen the prediction, because it provides a valid reason why the QuickFreeze system could be needed alongside conventional ones: it is more effective in cold weather. D Although this claim does undercut one reason for thinking municipalities might not be likely to purchase the QuickFreeze system, it provides little reason to think that they will purchase such a system. Perhaps in times of cold weather, the QuickFreeze system is very expensive to maintain. E The issue of whether or not there are water shortages in places where winters are cold is not directly relevant. If conventional wastewater systems are sufficient to purify water in such places, municipalities would not need the QuickFreeze system (as they would still need to maintain a conventional purification system). The correct answer is C.
10. Plant scientists have used genetic engineering on seeds to produce crop plants that are highly resistant to insect damage. Unfortunately, the seeds themselves are quite expensive, and the plants require more fertilizer and water to grow well than normal ones. Accordingly, for most farmers the savings on pesticides would not compensate for the higher seed costs and the cost of additional fertilizer. However, since consumer demand for grains, fruits, and vegetables grown without the use of pesticides continues to rise, the use of genetically engineered seeds of this kind is likely to become widespread. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
A.The first supplies a context for the argument; the second is the argument's main conclusion.
B.The first introduces a development that the argument predicts will have a certain outcome; the second is a state of affairs that, according to the argument, contributes to bringing about that outcome.
C.The first presents a development that the argument predicts will have a certain outcome; the second acknowledges a consideration that tends to weigh against that prediction.
D.The first provides evidence to support a prediction that the argument seeks to defend; the second is that prediction.
E.The first and the second each provide evidence to support the argument's main conclusion.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Seeds genetically engineered by plant scientists produce crops highly resistant to insect damage and require less use of pesticides. The seeds would be costly to use and would not help most farmers increase their profitability. Nonetheless, consumer demand for pesticide-free food materials is increasing, so genetically engineered seeds are likely to become widely used. Reasoning What function is served by the statement that plant scientists have used genetic engineering on seeds to produce insect-resistant crop plants? What function is served by the statement that for most farmers the savings on pesticides would not outweigh other associated costs? The first describes an innovation— genetically engineered seeds—that allows crops to be grown with little or no use of pesticides. The second notes that despite savings on pesticide use, most farmers would not increase their profits by using the new seeds. The argument's main conclusion, however, is the prediction that use of such genetically engineered seeds will become widespread. A The second statement is a conclusion—but not the main conclusion—that has the first statement as partial support. B This correctly characterizes the first statement but not the second. The second statement is not meant to indicate a factor that contributes to the predicted outcome; it indicates, rather, a factor that somewhat counts against the argument's prediction. C Correct. This correctly characterizes both statements. D The first statement provides partial support for the prediction stated in the argument's main conclusion; the second statement does not state that prediction. E The second cannot accurately be described as giving evidence to support the prediction stated in the argument's main conclusion. The correct answer is C.
11. Which of the following most logically completes the passage? Leptin, a protein occurring naturally in the blood, appears to regulate how much fat the body carries by speeding up the metabolism and decreasing the appetite when the body has too much fat. Mice that do not naturally produce leptin have more fat than other mice, but lose fat rapidly when they are given leptin injections. Unfortunately, however, leptin cannot be used as a dietary supplement to control fat, since ______.
A.the digestive system breaks down proteins before they can enter the bloodstream
B.there are pharmaceuticals already available that can contribute to weight loss by speeding up the metabolism
C.people with unusually low levels of leptin in their blood tend to have a high percentage of body fat
D.the mice that do not naturally produce leptin were from a specially bred strain of mice
E.mice whose bodies did produce leptin also lost some of their body fat when given leptin injections
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Leptin, a protein naturally occurring in the bloodstream, speeds up metabolism to induce loss of excessive fat. Mice that lack leptin have more fat than other mice, but lose fat when given leptin injections. However, leptin cannot be used as a dietary supplement to control fat. Reasoning What would explain the fact that a dietary supplement of leptin will not help to control fat? Leptin injected into the bloodstream—but not leptin taken as a dietary supplement—helps control fat. So leptin taken as a dietary supplement is either inactivated in the gastrointestinal system or for some other reason fails to enter the bloodstream. A Correct. The digestive system breaks down proteins and would therefore break down leptin, which is a protein. This means that leptin given as a dietary supplement would never reach the bloodstream. B The question concerns leptin None, and this new information fails to explain why leptin cannot help control fat if administered as a dietary supplement. C It is unsurprising that this would be so, but this information does nothing to explain why leptin consumed as a supplement would fail to control fat. D Presumably leptin administered as a dietary supplement was first tested on mice bred to lack leptin. However, the question about leptin does not concern only mice, but presumably humans and other mammals. E This suggests that boosting existing normal leptin levels with injections can induce further fat loss. However, this has no obvious relevance to the question raised about why dietary supplements of leptin fail to produce fat loss. The correct answer is A.
12. Suncorp, a new corporation with limited funds, has been clearing large sections of the tropical Amazon forest for cattle ranching. This practice continues even though greater profits can be made from rubber tapping, which does not destroy the forest, than from cattle ranching, which does destroy the forest. Which of the following, if true, most helps to explain why Suncorp has been pursuing the less profitable of the two economic activities mentioned above?
A.The soil of the Amazon forest is very rich in nutrients that are important in the development of grazing lands.
B.Cattle-ranching operations that are located in tropical climates are more profitable than cattle-ranching operations that are located in cold-weather climates.
C.In certain districts, profits made from cattle ranching are more heavily taxed than profits made from any other industry.
D.Some of the cattle that are raised on land cleared in the Amazon are killed by wildcats.
E.The amount of money required to begin a rubber-tapping operation is twice as high as the amount needed to begin a cattle ranch.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Suncorp is a new corporation with limited funds. It has been clearing large sections of the tropical Amazon forest for ranching, even though rubber-tapping would be more profitable. Reasoning What would explain why Suncorp is clearing sections of the rain forest for ranching, even though rubber tapping would be more profitable? Because Suncorp has limited funds, if rubber tapping has much higher start-up costs, Suncorp might not have enough money to start rubber-tapping operations. If cattle ranching has much lower start-up costs than rubber tapping, Suncorp might be able to afford such an operation. A This statement gives a reason why cattle ranching in the Amazon might be more profitable than one might otherwise think it would be. However, we already know from the passage that rubber tapping would be more profitable than cattle ranching. So, this answer choice does not help explain why cattle ranching might be preferable to rubber tapping. B The comparison between the profitableness of cattle ranching in tropical climates and in cold-weather climates is irrelevant. The passage only covers cattle ranching in the tropical Amazon forest. This answer choice would at most explain why Suncorp is undertaking cattle ranching in the Amazon rather than in some cold-weather location. C This statement makes what needs to be explained harder to understand, for it indicates that cattle ranching in the Amazon might be less profitable than one would otherwise think. D Like answer choice (C), this statement indicates a disadvantage of cattle ranching in the Amazon. So, it does not explain why cattle ranching would be preferred to some other economic activity. E Correct. Because it costs less to begin cattle ranching than it does to begin rubber tapping, Suncorp—which has limited funds—would have a reason to pursue cattle ranching over a potentially more profitable activity. The correct answer is E.
13. Archaeologists use technology to analyze ancient sites. It is likely that this technology will advance considerably in the near future, allowing archaeologists to gather more information than is currently possible. If they study certain sites now, they risk contaminating or compromising them for future studies. Therefore, in order to maximize the potential for gathering knowledge in the long run, a team of archaeologists plans to delay the examination of a newly excavated site. Which of the following would be most useful to investigate for the purpose of evaluating the plan's prospects for achieving its goal?
A.Whether any of the contents of the site will significantly deteriorate before the anticipated technology is available
B.Whether there will continue to be improvements on the relevant technology
C.Whether the team can study a site other than the newly excavated site for the time being
D.Whether the site was inhabited by a very ancient culture
E.Whether the anticipated technology will damage objects under study
A B C D E
A
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation To avoid prematurely compromising a newly excavated site, an archaeological team plans to postpone examining it until more advanced technology is developed that will let them gather more information from it. Their goal is to maximize the potential for gathering knowledge. Reasoning What would be most helpful to investigate in order to assess how likely it is that delaying examination of the site will maximize the potential for gathering knowledge from it? In order to maximize (or even increase) the potential for gathering knowledge from the site by delaying its examination, the risk of compromising the site by examining it now has to be greater than the risk that the site will be compromised as much or more by delaying the examination. The delay might also increase the risk that the site will never be examined at all—for example, the team might lose its funding while it delays, or changes in local political conditions might prevent the site's future examination. Investigating any of these risks could be helpful in assessing the likelihood that the team's plan will achieve its goal. A Correct. If any of the site's contents will significantly deteriorate before the technology becomes available, that could reduce the ability to gather future information from the site even more than examining and compromising the site now would. B The passage already tells us that it is likely the technology will advance considerably in the near future. Given this information, further inquiry into whether there will be any ongoing (perhaps minor) improvements is somewhat redundant and probably of minimal value with respect to evaluating the plan's likelihood of success. C Even if the team can study a second site in the meanwhile, they might maximize the overall potential for gathering knowledge by delaying the examination of either site, both sites, or neither site until more advanced technology is available. D The age of the culture that inhabited the site is irrelevant to assessing the risks of delaying the site's examination until more advanced technology is available. E Even if the anticipated technology will damage or destroy the objects under study, it might still maximize the amount of knowledge that can be gathered from those objects. Without any comparison between the damage risk that would be incurred by proceeding with the current technology and the damage risk that would be incurred by waiting, the mere fact that some damage would occur is irrelevant. The correct answer is A.
14. More and more law firms specializing in corporate taxes are paid on a contingency-fee basis. Under this arrangement, if a case is won, the firm usually receives more than it would have received if it had been paid on the alternate hourly rate basis. If the case is lost, the firm receives nothing. Most firms are likely to make more under the contingency-fee arrangement. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the prediction above?
A.Firms that work exclusively under the hourly rate arrangement spend, on average, fewer hours on cases that are won than on cases that are lost.
B.Some litigation can last for years before any decision is reached, and, even then, the decision may be appealed.
C.Firms under the contingency-fee arrangement still pay their employees on an hourly basis.
D.Since the majority of firms specialize in certain kinds of cases, they are able to assess accurately their chances of winning each potential case.
E.Firms working under the contingency-fee arrangement take in fewer cases per year than do firms working under the hourly rate arrangement.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Law firms of a certain type are increasingly working on a contingency-fee basis, whereby the firm is only paid if the case won. For the individual cases that are thus taken and won, the payments are generally greater than the total payments would have been if the firms had been paid on an hourly basis. Furthermore, although cases taken on a contingency-fee basis present a significant risk of working for many hours on a case and not being paid, the passage claims that most firms are likely to make more money, on average, than they would if they took their cases on an hourly basis. Reasoning What would most strongly indicate that, despite the risks, the law firms working on a contingency fee basis are likely to make more money, on average, than they would have otherwise? Our task is to find the statement that would most strongly support this prediction. A Supposing that the firms mentioned in this option changed from working on an hourly-rate basis to working on a contingency-fee basis, we would not have enough information to predict what the results would be. For example, we may have no reason to expect that the firm would accept the same cases that they would have accepted if they were working on an hourly-rate basis. As such, patterns of work on cases taken on an hourly basis may be irrelevant for determining how much the firms would make if they were to take their cases on a contingency-fee basis. B This option indicates that firms taking cases on a contingency-fee basis can work on the cases for years without payment. Rather than supporting the point that firms would make more money if they worked on a contingency-fee basis, the option illustrates an aspect of the risks associated with this payment arrangement. C This option also helps to illustrate the risk associated with taking cases on a contingency-fee basis. Even though firms working on such cases will only be paid if they win and not until then, they will still incur significant costs when working on their cases. D Correct. This option suggests that firms working on a contingency-fee basis would be able to select cases that they would be likely to win and therefore be paid for. This makes it more likely that the firms would make more money working on a contingency-fee basis than they would if working on an hourly basis. E Although the difference in numbers of cases described in this option could, given certain possible facts, be relevant to the prediction made by the argument, we have not been given any such facts. The correct answer is D.
15. A newly discovered painting seems to be the work of one of two seventeenth-century artists, either the northern German Johannes Drechen or the Frenchman Louis Birelle, who sometimes painted in the same style as Drechen. Analysis of the carved picture frame, which has been identified as the painting's original seventeenth-century frame, showed that it is made of wood found widely in northern Germany at the time, but rare in the part of France where Birelle lived. This shows that the painting is most likely the work of Drechen. Which of the following is an assumption that the argument requires?
A.The frame was made from wood local to the region where the picture was painted.
B.Drechen is unlikely to have ever visited the home region of Birelle in France.
C.Sometimes a painting so resembles others of its era that no expert is able to confidently decide who painted it.
D.The painter of the picture chose the frame for the picture.
E.The carving style of the picture frame is not typical of any specific region of Europe.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Construction Situation The original frame of a seventeenth-century painting that seems to be by either the northern German Johannes Drechen or the Frenchman Louis Birelle is made of a type of wood much more common in northern Germany than in France, suggesting that Drechen was the painter. Reasoning What must be true in order for the facts presented to support the conclusion that the painting is by Drechen? The argument is that in the seventeenth century, the type of wood in the frame was more common in northern Germany where Drechen was from than in France where Birelle was from, so probably Drechen painted the picture. In order for this inference to be plausible, the argument must implicitly assume that the frame's wood was from the same region the painter was from. And in order to justify this assumed connection between the wood and the region the painter was from, the argument must also assume that the painter painted the picture in that region. A Correct. If the frame were not made of wood local to the region where the picture was painted, or if that region in turn were not where the painter was from, then the cited fact about where the wood was more common would be irrelevant to the conclusion about who painted the picture. B The argument is compatible with the plausible hypothesis that Drechen visited France at some point during his lifetime but did not frame this or any painting with French wood. C Even if experts always felt confident in deciding who painted any picture, examining the wood in the picture frame might help them decide correctly. D The argument is compatible with the plausible hypothesis that the picture was sold to a local customer who then chose a frame of local wood. E The argument would be even stronger if this were false and the carving style of the frame were typical of northern Germany specifically. The correct answer is A.
16. Beginning in 1966 all new cars sold in Morodia were required to have safety belts and power steering. Previously, most cars in Morodia were without these features. Safety belts help to prevent injuries in collisions, and power steering helps to avoid collisions in the first place. But even though in 1966 one-seventh of the cars in Morodia were replaced with new cars, the number of car collisions and collision-related injuries did not decline. Which of the following, if true about Morodia, most helps to explain why the number of collisions and collision-related injuries in Morodia failed to decline in 1966?
A.Because of a driver-education campaign, most drivers and passengers in cars that did have safety belts used them in 1966.
B.Most of the new cars bought in 1966 were bought in the months of January and February.
C.In 1965, substantially more than one-seventh of the cars in Morodia were replaced with new cars.
D.An excessive reliance on the new safety features led many owners of new cars to drive less cautiously in 1966 than before.
E.The seat belts and power steering put into new cars sold in 1966 had to undergo strict quality-control inspections by manufacturers, whether the cars were manufactured in Morodia or not.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Starting in 1966, new cars sold in Morodia were required to have safety belts and power steering. But the numbers of car collisions and collision-related injuries did not decline that year. Reasoning What could explain why the newly required safety features did not reduce the numbers of collisions and collision-related injuries in 19667 The passage says that power steering helps to prevent collisions and that safety belts help to prevent collision-related injuries. Since most Morodian cars previously lacked these features, and one-seventh of them were replaced with new cars in 1966, the proportion of cars with these features must have increased that year. This should have reduced the numbers of collisions and collision-related injuries unless some other factor counteracted the reductions. Evidence of any such countervailing factor would help to explain why the numbers did not decrease. A Increased usage of safety belts should have reduced the number of collision-related injuries, so it would not help explain why this number did not decrease. B If the new cars bought in 1966 were mostly purchased early in the year, the increased proportion of cars with the newly required safety features should have started more significantly reducing the numbers of collisions and collision-related injuries early in the year, producing greater reductions for the year as a whole. C However, many cars were replaced in the year before the safety features were required, in 1966 the replacement of one-seventh of all Morodian cars should still have increased the overall proportion of Morodian cars with the safety features and thus reduced the numbers of collisions and collision-related injuries. D Correct. If many owners of the cars with the new safety features drove less cautiously, their recklessness could have increased the overall numbers of collisions and collision-related injuries despite any benefits from the safety features. E Strict quality-control inspections should have made the safety features more reliable, further reducing the numbers of collisions and collision-related injuries. The correct answer is D.
17. Enterprise Bank currently requires customers with checking accounts to maintain a minimum balance or pay a monthly fee. Enterprise plans to offer accounts with no monthly fee and no minimum-balance requirement; to cover their projected administrative costs of $3 per account per month they plan to charge $30 for overdrawing an account. Since each month on average slightly more than 10 percent of Enterprise's customers overdraw their accounts, bank officials predict the new accounts will generate a profit. Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the bank officials' prediction?
A.Some of Enterprise Bank's current checking account customers are expected to switch to the new accounts once they are offered.
B.One third of Enterprise Bank's revenues are currently derived from monthly fees tied to checking accounts.
C.Many checking account customers who occasionally pay a fee for not maintaining a minimum balance in their account generally maintain a balance well above the minimum.
D.Customers whose checking accounts do not have a minimum-balance requirement are more likely than others to overdraw their checking accounts.
E.Customers whose checking accounts do not have a minimum-balance requirement are more likely than others to write checks for small amounts.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation Enterprise Bank gives customers checking accounts with no monthly fee provided they maintain a certain minimum balance. However, the bank plans to offer accounts with no minimum-balance requirement and no monthly fee. It plans to cover the bank's $3 per account per month administrative cost by charging a $30 penalty for overdrafts. Only slightly more than 10 percent of customers, on average, overdraw their accounts in a month. The bank officials predict the new accounts will generate a profit. Reasoning What new information, if accurate, would most strongly support the prediction? If about only one customer in ten, on average, currently has an overdraft in a month, and if this trend continues among customers who sign up for the new account, then the proposed $30 penalty per overdraft will cover the $30 cost of maintaining checking accounts for 10 customers per month. Would removing the minimum-balance requirement significantly increase the 10 percent overdraft rate? If so, then significantly more than one in ten customers, on average, would pay a $30 penalty. If this were so, then the new plan would yield a profit, as predicted. A "Some" might mean only a few, and this would probably not be sufficient to make the new plan significantly profitable. B This suggests that many customers with the current minimum-balance no-monthly-fee account do not maintain the minimum-balance requirement and pay fees instead. However, this information by itself seems to have little bearing on the new plan. C Such customers would be likely to overdraw their accounts less frequently. This suggests that if a preponderance of the customers for the proposed new account were such customers, the overdraft rate would decrease, and the proposed new account would be less profitable, or even unprofitable. D Correct. This information provides strong support for the bank officials' prediction. It indicates that the currently roughly 10 percent overdraft rate might increase drastically with the no-minimum-balance account and, on average, cause the imposition of a $30 penalty on significantly more than 10 percent of customers per month. This would make the new account significantly profitable. E This suggests that a check written by one of these customers is more likely to be for a small amount and is therefore somewhat less likely to cause an overdraft (unless such customers typically have small checking balances, which we are not told). If there were many such customers for the proposed new account, the overdraft rate might be less than 10 percent; this would indicate that the new account might not turn out to be profitable. The correct answer is D.
18. In virtually any industry, technological improvements increase labor productivity, which is the output of goods and services per person-hour worked. In Parland's industries, labor productivity is significantly higher than it is in Vergia's industries. Clearly, therefore, Parland's industries must, on the whole, be further advanced technologically than Vergia's are. The argument is most vulnerable to which of the following criticisms?
A.It offers a conclusion that is no more than a paraphrase of one of the pieces of information provided in its support.
B.It presents as evidence in support of a claim information that is inconsistent with other evidence presented in support of the same claim.
C.It takes one possible cause of a condition to be the actual cause of that condition without considering any other possible causes.
D.It takes a condition to be the effect of something that happened only after the condition already existed.
E.It makes a distinction that presupposes the truth of the conclusion that is to be established.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Technological improvements in nearly every industry increase labor productivity, which is the output of goods and services per person-hour worked. Because labor productivity is significantly higher in Parland than Vergia, Parland's industries are, in general, more technologically advanced than Vergia's. Reasoning To which criticism is the argument most vulnerable? Though one factor, such as technological advancements, may lead to greater labor productivity, it may not be the only such factor, or even a necessary factor, leading to great labor productivity. Therefore, the mere fact that one region's labor is more productive than another's is not sufficient to establish that the former region is more technologically advanced than the latter region is. A "The conclusion is not merely a paraphrase of the pieces of information provided in its support. Indeed, the problem with the argument is that the conclusion goes too far beyond what the premises merit. B "The premises of the argument are not inconsistent with one another. C Correct. This accurately describes the flaw in the argument because the reasons given in the argument for its conclusion would be good reasons only if there were no other plausible explanations for Parland's greater labor productivity. D The argument does not mention how long Parland has had more productive labor, or when technological improvements would have occurred. E Neither of the premises contains anything that presupposes the conclusion to be true. The correct answer is C.
19. Chaco Canyon, a settlement of the ancient Anasazi culture in North America, had massive buildings. It must have been a major Anasazi center. Analysis of wood samples shows that some of the timber for the buildings came from the Chuska and San Mateo mountains, 50 miles from Chaco Canyon. Only a major cultural center would have the organizational power to import timber from 50 miles away. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
A.The first is a premise used to support the argument's main conclusion; the second is the argument's main conclusion.
B.The first is the argument's main conclusion; the second is a premise used to support that conclusion.
C.The first is one of two premises used to support the argument's main conclusion; the second is the other of those two premises.
D.The first is a premise used to support the argument's main conclusion; the second is a premise used to support another conclusion drawn in the argument.
E.The first is inferred from another statement in the argument; the second is inferred from the first.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Construction Situation The ancient Anasazi settlement at Chaco Canyon had massive buildings, for which some of the timber came from mountains 50 miles away. Reasoning What roles do the statement that Chaco Canyon must have been a major Anasazi center and the statement that only a major center would have the organizational power to import timber from 50 miles away play in the argument? The first and third sentences in the passage are both factual observations. Since no further support is provided for either of them, neither can be a conclusion in the argument. The fourth sentence is a speculative generalization about major cultural centers. None of the other statements gives us any reason to think this generalization is true, so it cannot be a conclusion in the argument, either. However, the third and fourth sentences together imply that Chaco Canyon was a major cultural center, and the first sentence indicates that it was Anasazi. So together, the first, third, and fourth sentences all support the claim that Chaco Canyon was a major Anasazi cultural center and thus more generally a major Anasazi center, as the second sentence asserts. Therefore, the first, third, and fourth sentences are all premises that jointly support the second sentence as a conclusion. A As explained above, the first boldface sentence is a conclusion supported by the latter, not the other way around. B Correct. As explained above, the first boldface sentence is the argument's only stated conclusion, and in that sense its main conclusion, while all the other sentences are premises used to support it. C As explained above, the first boldface sentence is the argument's conclusion, not a premise used to support the conclusion. D As explained above, the first boldface sentence is the argument's only stated conclusion, and there is no reason to suppose that the argument is intended to lead to any other tacit conclusion that the second boldface sentence is intended to support. E As explained above, the first boldface sentence is inferred from the three other statements in the argument together, not from any one of them alone. The second boldface sentence is a speculative generalization that cannot be, and is not meant to be, inferred from the former or from any other statement in the argument. The correct answer is B.
20. The Maxilux car company's design for its new luxury model, the Max 100, included a special design for the tires that was intended to complement the model's image. The winning bid for supplying these tires was submitted by Rubco. Analysts concluded that the bid would only just cover Rubco's costs on the tires, but Rubco executives claim that winning the bid will actually make a profit for the company. Which of the following, if true, most strongly justifies the claim made by Rubco's executives?
A.In any Maxilux model, the spare tire is exactly the same make and model as the tires that are mounted on the wheels.
B.Rubco holds exclusive contracts to supply Maxilux with the tires for a number of other models made by Maxilux.
C.The production facilities for the Max 100 and those for the tires to be supplied by Rubco are located very near each other.
D.When people who have purchased a carefully designed luxury automobile need to replace a worn part of it, they almost invariably replace it with a part of exactly the same make and type.
E.When Maxilux awarded the tire contract to Rubco, the only criterion on which Rubco's bid was clearly ahead of its competitors' bids was price.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Rubco won a bid for supplying tires for the Max 100, a new luxury model by Maxilux. The bid would barely cover the cost of the tires, but Rubco executives claim that winning the bid will be profitable. Reasoning What would support the executives' claim? Rubco is not expected to make a profit from supplying the tires for the new cars, so we must look for some other way that Rubco could derive a profit as a result of winning the bid. If by winning the bid Rubco created an inevitable market for itself in replacement tires—on which Rubco could earn a profit—then the executives' claim may be justified. A We have already been told that the bid is expected to barely cover the costs of supplying the tires on the new cars, so the analysts mentioned in the passage have presumably already taken into account that there is a spare tire supplied for the Max 100. B If winning the bid led Rubco to win more exclusive contracts with the Maxilux, that might help support the executives' claim. But this statement indicates only that Rubco already has several exclusive contracts to supply Maxilux with tires, not that winning the bid has led to, or will lead to, more such contracts, which is what would be needed. C As in answer choice (A), this is relevant to the costs of supplying the tires for the Max 100, but presumably this was taken into account by the analysts when they concluded that the bid would barely cover Rubco's costs on the tires. D Correct. This indicates that by winning the bid Rubco has created a way to profit from the contract with Maxilux, specifically, by creating a market for replacement tires. E This is likely one of the reasons that Rubco's bid only just covers Rubco's costs on the tires; it does nothing to justify the executives' claims that the bid will lead to a profit for Rubco. The correct answer is D.
21. Which of the following most logically completes the passage? Most bicycle helmets provide good protection for the top and back of the head, but little or no protection for the temple regions on the sides of the head. A study of head injuries resulting from bicycle accidents showed that a large proportion were caused by blows to the temple area. Therefore, if bicycle helmets protected this area, the risk of serious head injury in bicycle accidents would be greatly reduced, especially since ______.
A.among the bicyclists included in the study's sample of head injuries, only a very small proportion had been wearing a helmet at the time of their accident
B.even those bicyclists who regularly wear helmets have a poor understanding of the degree and kind of protection that helmets afford
C.a helmet that included protection for the temples would have to be somewhat larger and heavier than current helmets
D.the bone in the temple area is relatively thin and impacts in that area are thus very likely to cause brain injury
E.bicyclists generally land on their arm or shoulder when they fall to the side, which reduces the likelihood of severe impacts on the side of the head
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Bicycle helmets protect the top and back of the head, but not the sides or temples. A study found that a large proportion of head injuries caused by biking accidents were caused by blows to the temple area. Reasoning Why would the risk of serious head injury in bicycle accidents be greatly reduced if bicycle helmets protected the temple regions? If for some reason a serious head injury is particularly likely when there is impact to the temple area, then bicycle helmets that protect that area would be apt to reduce the number of serious head injuries from bicycle accidents. One such reason is that the bone in the temple area is relatively thin. A This point is irrelevant because it gives us no information about the seriousness or the likelihood of injuries due to impact to the temple area. B Whether bicyclists who regularly wear helmets have a good understanding of what protection their helmets afford is not relevant as to whether serious head injuries are particularly likely to occur from impact to the temple area. C This point is relevant only to what a helmet that protected the temple area would be like, not to the seriousness of injuries resulting from impact to that area. If anything, this point counts as a reason against the conclusion, not for it. If such helmets are heavier and larger, they may be used less than they otherwise would be. If fewer helmets are used, then improvements to helmet design will have less of an effect in reducing serious head injuries. D Correct. This statement provides a reason why the temple area of the rider's head needs protection: impacts to this area are very likely to cause brain injuries. E This is largely irrelevant. Even if it suggests that head injuries do not generally result from bicyclists falling to the side, it does not indicate that such injuries are rare or that there is not great risk of serious injury in those cases in which there is impact to the temple area. The correct answer is D.
22. Which of the following most logically completes the argument? In a typical year, Innovair's airplanes are involved in 35 collisions while parked or being towed in airports, with a resulting yearly cost of $1,000,000 for repairs. To reduce the frequency of ground collisions, Innovair will begin giving its ground crews additional training, at an annual cost of $500,000. Although this will cut the number of ground collisions by about half at best, the drop in repair costs can be expected to be much greater, since ______.
A.most ground collisions happen when ground crews are rushing to minimize the time a delayed airplane spends on the ground
B.a ground collision typically occurs when there are no passengers on the airplane
C.the additional training will focus on helping ground crews avoid those kinds of ground collisions that cause the most costly damage
D.the $500,000 cost figure for the additional training of ground crews includes the wages that those crews will earn during the time spent in actual training
E.most ground collisions have been caused by the least experienced ground-crew members
A B C D E
C
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation An airline will give its ground crews additional training to reduce the frequency of the collisions its airplanes are involved in while parked or being towed in airports. Reasoning What premise would most logically support the conclusion that the additional training will reduce repair costs from ground collisions much more than it reduces the number of such collisions? The key word since before the blank shows that the argument should be completed with a premise that supports the preceding claim that the drop in repair costs can be expected to be much greater. A suitable premise might provide evidence that the training will disproportionately help to prevent the ground collisions that result in the higher repair costs as opposed to the less serious collisions that result in lower repair costs. A We are given no reason to believe that the additional training would affect how much ground crews rush to minimize delays. B The number of passengers is not clearly relevant to the repair costs resulting from a ground collision and in any case would not be affected by additional ground crew training. C Correct. If the training especially helps the ground crews avoid those kinds of collisions that cause the most costly damage, then it will probably reduce repair costs even more than it reduces the number of collisions. D Whether the cited expense for training includes wages is irrelevant to whether the training will reduce repair costs more than it reduces the number of collisions. E This suggests that the additional training may help reduce the number of collisions, not that it will reduce repair costs more than it reduces the number of collisions. The correct answer is C.
23. Many agriculturally intensive areas of the world are beginning to encounter water scarcity problems. As a result, many farmers in these areas are likely to reduce their output as the water supply they need in order to maintain production shrinks. However, one group of farmers in such a region plans to increase their production by implementing techniques for water conservation. Which of the following, if true, would most strongly support the prediction that the group's plan will succeed?
A.Farmers that can gain a larger share of the food market in their regions will be better positioned to control more water resources.
B.Most agricultural practices in areas with water shortages are water-intensive.
C.Other regions of the world not facing water shortages are likely to make up for the reduction in agricultural output.
D.Demand for agricultural products in the group's region is not expected to decline.
E.More than half the water used for agriculture in the farmers' region is lost to evaporation or leakage from irrigation channels.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation Farmers in many agriculturally intensive regions will probably reduce their output because the regions' water supplies are dwindling, but one group of farmers in such a region plans to use water conservation techniques to increase their output. Reasoning What would provide evidence that water conservation techniques will help the farmers increase production despite their region's dwindling water supplies? In order for the water conservation techniques to be effective, they must result in significantly more water becoming available for the farmers to use. Because overall supplies are shrinking, rather than growing, that can only happen if the farmers are currently losing or wasting a great deal of water in ways that could be prevented with water conservation techniques. A This suggests an advantage the farmers will gain if their water conservation plan enables them to increase production, but it provides no evidence that the plan actually will enable them to increase production. B This suggests that the plan would have to yield quite a lot of conserved water in order for the farmers to increase production, but it offers no evidence that the plan will do so. Thus, it provides some reason to question whether the plan will succeed. C Whether regions without water shortages will increase production is not directly relevant to the question of whether a particular measure would lead to increased production in one region that does have a water shortage. D This has some slight, indirect relevance to the question of whether the farmers' plan will succeed: it suggests that if the farmers do manage to increase production, they will continue to have a market for what they produce. However, it does not address the issue of whether they will be able to increase production. Furthermore, even if demand for agricultural products in the group's region were expected to decline, it could still remain high enough to support the farmers' increased output from their water conservation plan. E Correct. This suggests that the farmers are losing a lot of water in ways that the water conservation techniques might prevent, so it provides evidence that employing some such techniques could enable the farmers to save enough water to increase their output. The correct answer is E.
24. Hollywood restaurant is replacing some of its standard tables with tall tables and stools. The restaurant already fills every available seat during its operating hours, and the change in seating arrangements will not result in an increase in the restaurant's seating capacity. Nonetheless, the restaurant's management expects revenue to increase as a result of the seating change without any concurrent change in menu, prices, or operating hours. Which of the following, if true, provides the best reason for the expectation?
A.One of the taller tables takes up less floor space than one of the standard tables.
B.Diners seated on stools typically do not linger over dinner as long as diners seated at standard tables.
C.Since the restaurant will replace only some of its standard tables, it can continue to accommodate customers who do not care for the taller tables.
D.Few diners are likely to avoid the restaurant because of the new seating arrangement.
E.The standard tables being replaced by tall tables would otherwise have to be replaced with new standard tables at a greater expense.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Hollywood restaurant is replacing some of its tables with taller tables and stools, and the management expects this will increase revenue, despite the fact that the restaurant already fills all of its available seats and that this change will not increase seating capacity. Furthermore, there will not be any change in menu, prices, or operating hours. Reasoning What would strongly support the management's expectation? Since the new seating will not increase the restaurant's seating capacity, the management's expectations must be based on a belief that the change to taller tables and stools will somehow change diners' behavior, perhaps by leading them to order more food, or to stay at their tables for a shorter time, thereby allowing the restaurant to serve more diners during its operating hours without increasing seating capacity. If diners seated at tall tables and on tall stools spend less time lingering over their dinners, then they will leave sooner, opening up the tables for more diners. Because the restaurant, before the change, already fills every available seat during its operating hours, it is reasonable to think that it will be able to serve more diners than it currently does, thereby selling more food and thus increasing revenue. A This would be relevant if we could infer from it that seating capacity will increase. However, the passage indicates that the new seating arrangement will not result in greater capacity. B Correct. Because the restaurant will be able to serve more meals during its operating hours, the restaurant's revenue can be expected to increase. C This may indicate that the restaurant is less likely to alienate customers who do not care for tall tables and stools, but that only supports the claim that the restaurant will not lose customers and therefore lose revenue; it does not indicate that the restaurant will see revenue increase. D Again, this merely indicates that there will not be a loss—or much loss—of revenue, not that there will be an increase in revenue. E Less expensive tables will decrease the restaurant's costs, but it will not increase the restaurant's revenue. The correct answer is B.
25. A major network news organization experienced a drop in viewership in the week following the airing of a controversial report on the economy. The network also received a very large number of complaints regarding the report. The network, however, maintains that negative reactions to the report had nothing to do with its loss of viewers. Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the network's position?
A.The other major network news organizations reported similar reductions in viewership during the same week.
B.The viewers who registered complaints with the network were regular viewers of the news organization's programs.
C.Major network news organizations publicly attribute drops in viewership to their own reports only when they receive complaints about those reports.
D.This was not the first time that this network news organization has aired a controversial report on the economy that has inspired viewers to complain to the network.
E.Most network news viewers rely on network news broadcasts as their primary source of information regarding the economy.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation A major network news organization aired a controversial report on the economy, and the following week the network's viewership declined. The network claims that the loss of viewers was not connected with negative reactions to the report. Reasoning Which statement most strongly supports the network's position? If other major news network organizations had similar drops in viewership, it is implausible to think that the controversial report accounted for the other organizations' drops in viewership. On the other hand, it is not implausible to suppose that whatever did cause the drop in the viewership experienced by other network news organizations—e.g., holidays, weather, popular non-news programming—also had that effect on the organization that ran the controversial report. This would give some reason to believe that it was not the report that accounts for the organization's drop in viewership. A Correct. This statement indicates that something other than the airing of the report could account for the subsequent drop in the organization's viewership. B If anything, this statement tends to undermine the network's claim, because it suggests that the report offended people who otherwise might have continued to watch the organization's programming. C Since the network did in fact receive complaints about the report, this statement is irrelevant. D The fact that the network has received complaints before about controversial reports on the economy that the network's news organization has aired tells us nothing about whether this recent report caused a subsequent drop in viewership. E The fact that viewers turn to network news broadcasts as their primary source of information about the economy tells us nothing about whether viewers might stop watching a particular network news organization's programs as a result of its airing a controversial report on the economy. The correct answer is A.
26. Only a reduction of 10 percent in the number of scheduled flights using Greentown's airport will allow the delays that are so common there to be avoided. Hevelia airstrip, 40 miles away, would, if upgraded and expanded, be an attractive alternative for fully 20 percent of the passengers using Greentown airport. Nevertheless, experts reject the claim that turning Hevelia into a full-service airport would end the chronic delays at Greentown. Which of the following, if true, most helps to justify the experts' position?
A.Turning Hevelia into a full-service airport would require not only substantial construction at the airport itself, but also the construction of new access highways.
B.A second largely undeveloped airstrip close to Greentown airport would be a more attractive alternative than Hevelia for many passengers who now use Greentown.
C.Hevelia airstrip lies in a relatively undeveloped area but would, if it became a full-service airport, be a magnet for commercial and residential development.
D.If an airplane has to wait to land, the extra jet fuel required adds significantly to the airline's costs.
E.Several airlines use Greentown as a regional hub, so that most flights landing at Greentown have many passengers who then take different flights to reach their final destinations.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation To avoid the delays now common at Greentown's airport, the number of scheduled flights there would need to be reduced by 10 percent. If the nearby Hevelia airstrip were expanded and upgraded, it would be an attractive alternative for 20 percent of Greentown airport's passengers. Still, experts do not believe that the delays at Greentown would end even if Hevelia were turned into a full-service airport. Reasoning Which statement most supports the experts' position? If the number of flights at Greentown's airport did not drop by at least 10 percent, despite the fact that 20 percent of the passengers who currently use Greentown's airport would find nearby Hevelia airstrip an attractive alternative, then the delays would not be avoided. Airlines generally use certain airports as regional hubs—an airport through which an airline routes most of its traffic—so, even if many passengers would be willing to use Hevelia airstrip, the number of flights at Greentown may not decline significantly, or at all. A The experts' position concerns what would happen to the flight delays at Greentown airport if the Hevelia airstrip were converted into a full-service airport. So the fact that there are great costs involved in making such a conversion—possibly making such a conversion unlikely—has no bearing on the effects such a conversion would have on flight delays at Greentown if the conversion were to be carried out. B This statement indicates that the undeveloped airstrip near Greentown might be a better way to alleviate flight delays at Greentown, but it tells us nothing about the effects that converting the Hevelia airstrip to a full-service airport would have were it to be carried out. C This in no way explains why converting the Hevelia airstrip into a full-service airport would not alleviate the problem with flight delays at Greentown. D This provides a reason to think that reducing the number of flights at Greentown might make the airport more efficient. But that has no bearing on the effect that converting the Hevelia airstrip to a full-service airport might have on flight delays at Greentown. E Correct. This statement provides support for the experts' position because it gives a reason for thinking that the number of scheduled flights at Greentown would not be reduced, even if Hevelia airstrip became an attractive alternative for some 20 percent of Greentown's passengers. The correct answer is E.
27. Farmer: Worldwide, just three grain crops—rice, wheat, and corn—account for most human caloric intake. To maintain this level of caloric intake and also keep pace with global population growth, yields per acre from each of these crops will have to increase at least 1.5 percent every year, given that the supply of cultivated land is diminishing. Therefore, the government should increase funding for research into new ways to improve yields. Which of the following is an assumption on which the farmer's argument depends?
A.It is solely the government's responsibility to ensure that the amount of rice, wheat, and corn produced worldwide keeps pace with global population growth.
B.Increasing government funding for research into new ways to improve the yields per acre of rice, wheat, and corn crops would help to increase total worldwide annual production of food from these crops.
C.Increasing the yields per acre of rice, wheat, and corn is more important than increasing the yields per acre of other crops.
D.Current levels of funding for research into ways of improving grain crop yields per acre have enabled grain crop yields per acre to increase by more than 1.5 percent per year worldwide.
E.In coming decades, rice, wheat, and corn will become a minor part of human caloric intake, unless there is government-funded research to increase their yields per acre.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Construction Situation The farmer states that although the worldwide human population is increasing, the supply of cultivated land is decreasing. We thus need to increase yields for the food crops that account for most of human caloric intake—rice, wheat, and corn—if we are to maintain our existing caloric intake. The increase in yields, according to the farmer, would need to be at least 1.5 percent every year. Reasoning What must be true if we are to accept the farmer's conclusion, that the government should increase funding for research into new ways to improve crop yields, on the basis of the above statements? The farmer uses the above statements as premises of an argument for an increase in government funding for research on crop yields. Supposing that the farmer's statements are true, we need to find in the available options the statement that, if added to the argument, may allow us to accept the farmer's conclusion, based on the argument. A Whether or not nongovernmental entities such as NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) are responsible for helping to ensure that humans have an adequate amount of food, governments may or may not also have this responsibility. B Correct. If government funding of this research does not increase crop yields, then the premises of the argument provide no support for the conclusion that the government should provide such funding. The cogency of the argument thus depends on this statement. C Crops in addition to rice, wheat, and corn could also be very important, and perhaps essential for human existence. However, this would not diminish the importance of food crops such as rice, wheat, and corn. D This option may suggest that current levels of funding of research into crop yields are sufficient for purposes of our obtaining the necessary crop yields. E This option suggests that rice, wheat, and corn may be replaced by other crops, because the other crops have better yields. Because we might thus have a means for increasing crop yields that does not involve an increase in government research funding, this option may actually decrease the support for the conclusion. The correct answer is B.
28. The air quality board recently informed Coffee Roast, a small coffee roasting firm, of a complaint regarding the smoke from its roaster. Recently enacted air quality regulations require machines roasting more than 10 pounds of coffee to be equipped with expensive smoke-dissipating afterburners. The firm, however, roasts only 8 pounds of coffee at a time. Nevertheless, the company has decided to purchase and install an afterburner. Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the firm's decision?
A.Until settling on the new air quality regulations, the board had debated whether to require afterburners for machines roasting more than 5 pounds of coffee at a time.
B.Coffee roasted in a machine equipped with an afterburner has its flavor subtly altered.
C.The cost to the firm of an afterburner is less than the cost of replacing its roaster with a smaller one.
D.Fewer complaints are reported in areas that maintain strict rules regarding afterburners.
E.The firm has reason to fear that negative publicity regarding the complaints could result in lost sales.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation After being informed of a complaint about smoke from its coffee roaster, a firm decided to purchase and install an afterburner to reduce or eliminate emissions of smoke, even though the roaster roasts too little coffee at a time for an afterburner to be legally required. Reasoning What would have been a good reason for the firm to buy and install the afterburner? The only factors mentioned that might give the firm reason to buy an afterburner are the complaint about smoke and the regulations requiring an afterburner. Since the regulations do not apply in this case, the complaint is more likely to have motivated the firm's decision. Any serious potential consequences the firm might have faced from failure to address the complaint could have provided a good reason to buy and install the afterburner. A If this debate had still been ongoing when the firm made its decision, uncertainty about the pending regulations might have justified the decision. But the debate had already been settled before the firm decided to purchase the afterburner, and the regulations clearly did not require one. B An unspecified alteration in flavor is not clearly a good reason to use an afterburner—the afterburner might worsen the flavor. C The firm's roaster was already small enough that the regulations did not require it to be replaced, even without an afterburner. D This reason relates only to rules regarding afterburners, not to Coffee Roast's purchase of an afterburner, which was not mandated by regulations. Furthermore, it could be that the air quality regulations recently enacted are among the strictest in any region, which could result in fewer complaints regardless of whether Coffee Roast installs an afterburner. E Correct. Since installing an afterburner is a plausible way to address the complaint and prevent future complaints, the firm has plausible reasons to believe this strategy will help it avoid the negative publicity and lost sales it fears. These considerations could have reasonably justified its decision. The correct answer is E.
29. People who do regular volunteer work tend to live longer, on average, than people who do not. It has been found that "doing good," a category that certainly includes volunteer work, releases endorphins, the brain's natural opiates, which induce in people a feeling of well-being. Clearly, there is a connection: Regular releases of endorphins must in some way help to extend people's lives. Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the force of the evidence given as support for the hypothesis that endorphins promote longevity?
A.People who do regular volunteer work are only somewhat more likely than others to characterize the work they do for a living as "doing good."
B.Although extremely high levels of endorphins could be harmful to health, such levels are never reached as a result of the natural release of endorphins.
C.There are many people who have done some volunteer work but who do not do such work regularly.
D.People tend not to become involved in regular volunteer work unless they are healthy and energetic to begin with.
E.Releases of endorphins are responsible for the sense of well-being experienced by many long-distance runners while running.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation People who volunteer regularly live longer on average than people who do not. Doing good work, including volunteer work, releases endorphins, which induce a feeling of well-being. Reasoning What additional findings would suggest that the cited evidence does not indicate that endorphins increase longevity? The argument implicitly assumes that the reason regular volunteers tend to live longer is that volunteering lengthens their lives. It further assumes that no factor that is correlated with volunteering, other than the endorphin release, would plausibly explain how volunteering could have this effect. Findings that cast doubt on either of these assumptions would undermine the connection between the cited evidence and the conclusion that endorphins promote longevity. A Volunteering might greatly boost volunteers' endorphin levels even if the work the volunteers do for a living is no different from other people's work. B Even if unnaturally high endorphin levels could harm health, the levels attainable through volunteer work may promote health. C The argument is about an observed correlation in a certain group of people (those who regularly do volunteer work). How many people are outside that group (i.e., do not regularly do volunteer work) is independent of the question of what causes the observed correlation. Even if some people volunteer only occasionally, volunteering regularly may promote longevity by causing regular releases of endorphins. D Correct. This suggests that the initially better health of people who choose to volunteer could fully explain the cited correlation between volunteering and longevity. E Unless we are also given evidence that long-distance runners tend not to live longer than other people, this does not undermine—the purported evidence in the argument. Endorphins might promote longevity in both regular volunteers and long-distance runners. The correct answer is D.
30. A study compared a sample of Swedish people older than 75 who needed in-home assistance with a similar sample of Israeli people. The people in the two samples received both informal assistance, provided by family and friends, and formal assistance, professionally provided. Although Sweden and Israel have equally well-funded and comprehensive systems for providing formal assistance, the study found that the people in the Swedish sample received more formal assistance, on average, than those in the Israeli sample. Which of the following, if true, does most to explain the difference that the study found?
A.A companion study found that among children needing special in-home care, the amount of formal assistance they received was roughly the same in Sweden as in Israel.
B.More Swedish than Israeli people older than 75 live in rural areas where formal assistance services are sparse or nonexistent.
C.Although in both Sweden and Israel much of the funding for formal assistance ultimately comes from the central government, the local structures through which assistance is delivered are different in the two countries.
D.In recent decades, the increase in life expectancy of someone who is 75 years old has been greater in Israel than in Sweden.
E.In Israel, people older than 75 tend to live with their children, whereas in Sweden people of that age tend to live alone.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation A study of elder care in Israel and Sweden found that in Sweden, of the total amount of care that people older than 75 and needing in-home assistance received, the proportion of care that was formal, i.e., provided by professional care personnel, was greater than in Israel. Both Sweden and Israel had equally good systems for providing formal care, and in both countries, the elderly also received informal care, i.e., care provided by friends and family. Reasoning Among the factors given, which would most contribute to explaining the difference the study found between Sweden and Israel with respect to elder care? A good guess would be that there is a difference in some societal factor that affects the difference the study found. For example, perhaps eiders in one of the countries regard maintaining independence as a higher priority than elders in the other and consequently try to rely less on friends and family? Perhaps patterns of decline in ability to remain independent are different in the two countries? Or perhaps a greater proportion of elders live alone in one of the countries than in the other? A The difference to be explained concerns only elder care, not care of children. B The fact that formal eider care is less available in Swedish rural areas than in Israeli rural areas might suggest that there would be a greater reliance on informal care in such areas in Sweden. But this new information throws little light on how the overall proportions of formal and informal care in each country would be affected. C This information is not specific enough to help explain the precise difference found in the study. It is reasonable to assume that the study was conducted with sufficient rigor to take account of any relevant structural differences in the delivery of formal elder care. D This could suggest either that the greater proportion of informal elder care in Israel contributes to greater life expectancy or that greater life expectancy signals greater fitness during old age that would make it more practical for friends and family to provide informal elder care. E Correct. The prevalence in Israel of eiders living in family settings—in contrast to Sweden, where elders tend to live alone—offers a plausible explanation of the difference that the study found in the patterns of elder care in Israel and Sweden. It seems reasonable to think that, all things being equal, elders living alone would use formal elder care services more often than elders living with friends or family. The correct answer is E.
31. Film Director: It is true that certain characters and plot twists in my newly released film The Big Heist are similar to characters and plot twists in Thieves, a movie that came out last year. Pointing to these similarities, the film studio that produced Thieves is now accusing me of taking ideas from that film. The accusation is clearly without merit. All production work on The Big Heist was actually completed months before Thieves was released. Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest support for the director's position?
A.Before Thieves began production, its script had been circulating for several years among various film studios, including the studio that produced The Big Heist.
B.The characters and plot twists that are most similar in the two films have close parallels in many earlier films of the same genre.
C.The film studio that produced Thieves seldom produces films in this genre.
D.The director of Thieves worked with the director of The Big Heist on several earlier projects.
E.Production work on Thieves began before production work on The Big Heist was started.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation The director of the film The Big Heist has been accused, by the studio that produced the film Thieves, of taking ideas from the film. The director responds that the accusation lacks merit, since all production work on The Big Heist was completed before Thieves appeared last year in theaters. Reasoning Which of the five statements most strongly supports the director's position? Crime thrillers, as a film genre, are likely to have stock characters and plot lines that reflect a long tradition. So it would be no surprise if some of the characters or plot twists in one such film would resemble, to a greater or lesser extent, the characters and plot twists in another. The studio might be correct in identifying such resemblances between The Big Heist and Thieves. But it would not necessarily be correct that characters or plot lines in The Big Heist were derived from Thieves. A This undercuts the director's position, since it provides information that indicates an opportunity for the director to copy ideas from the script for Thieves. B Correct. This information strengthens the support for the director's claim that the studio's accusation lacks merit. Since both Thieves and The Big Heist fall within a long tradition of crime thriller films, the characters and plot lines in both films reflect that tradition, and so any resemblances do not imply deliberate copying of the ideas in Thieves by the director of The Big Heist. C This information seems largely irrelevant to the issue raised and does not strengthen support for the director's conclusion. D This does little to indicate that the director's conclusion is correct. For example, the then-future director of Thieves might have discussed with the future director of The Big Heist specific ideas about character and plot for a planned crime thriller film. E This does not support the director's claim. For example, it raises the possibility that information about Thieves leaked during the early stages of production—information that could have been exploited in the production of The Big Heist. The correct answer is B.
32. In Mernia commercial fossil hunters often sell important fossils they have found, not to universities or museums, but to individual collectors, who pay much better but generally do not allow researchers access to their collections. To increase the number of fossils available for research, some legislators propose requiring all fossils that are found in Mernia to be sold only to universities or museums. Which of the following, if true, most strongly indicates that the legislators' proposal will fail to achieve its goal?
A.Some fossil hunters in Mernia are not commercial fossil hunters, but rather are amateurs who keep the fossils that they find.
B.Most fossils found in Mernia are common types that have little scientific interest.
C.Commercial fossil hunters in Mernia currently sell some of the fossils they find to universities and museums.
D.Many universities in Mernia do not engage in fossil research.
E.Most fossils are found by commercial fossil hunters, and they would give up looking for fossils if they were no longer allowed to sell to individual collectors.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation Fossil hunters in Mernia often sell important fossils to collectors who do not make them accessible to researchers. To increase the number of fossils available for research, some legislators propose requiring all fossils found in Mernia to be sold only to universities or museums. Reasoning What would most strongly suggest that requiring all fossils found in Mernia to be sold only to universities or museums would not increase the number of fossils available for research? To increase the number of fossils available for research, the proposed requirement will have to be implemented and effectively enforced. It will presumably have to increase the total number of fossils sold to universities and museums. And those institutions will have to make more of the fossils in their collections available to researchers than the private collectors do. Evidence that any of those conditions will not be fulfilled would suggest that the legislators' proposal will fail to achieve its goal. A Even if the legislation does not affect fossils kept by amateurs, it might still result in many more fossils being sold to universities or museums rather than to private collectors, and thus might still increase the number of fossils available for research. B Even if few Mernian fossils are interesting to researchers, the legislation could still achieve its goal of making more fossils available for research. C Even if commercial fossil hunters already sell a few fossils to universities and museums, the legislation could encourage them to sell many more fossils. D The universities that do not engage in fossil research presumably will not be interested in buying fossils even if the legislation passes. But the fossil hunters can just sell their fossils to other universities and museums that do engage in fossil research. E Correct. This suggests that if the legislation passes, fossils will simply be left in the ground rather than sold to private collectors. That would not increase the total number of fossils available for research. The correct answer is E.
33. Economist: Tropicorp, which constantly seeks profitable investment opportunities, has been buying and clearing sections of tropical forest for cattle ranching, although pastures newly created there become useless for grazing after just a few years. The company has not gone into rubber tapping, even though greater profits can be made from rubber tapping, which leaves the forest intact. Thus, some environmentalists argue that Tropicorp's actions do not serve even its own economic interest. However, the initial investment required for a successful rubber-tapping operation is larger than that needed for a cattle ranch; there is a shortage of workers employable in rubber-tapping operations; and taxes are higher on profits from rubber tapping than on profits from cattle ranching. Consequently, the environmentalists' conclusion is probably wrong. In the economist's argument, the two boldface portions play which of the following roles?
A.The first supports the conclusion of the economist's argument; the second calls that conclusion into question.
B.The first states the conclusion of the economist's argument; the second supports that conclusion.
C.The first supports the conclusion of the environmentalists' argument; the second states that conclusion.
D.The first states the conclusion of the environmentalists' argument; the second states the conclusion of the economist's argument.
E.Each supports the conclusion of the economist's argument.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation According to an economist, the firm Tropicorp has been investing in tropical forest that it has cleared for cattle ranching. But its new pastures are useless for grazing after a few years. In contrast, rubber tapping—which would avoid cutting trees—could be more profitable. According to the economist, environmentalists consequently argue that Tropicorp's investment does not serve the firm's economic interest. However, the economist argues, investing in rubber tapping involves some potential costs and risks greater than those that investing in cattle ranching involves. Consequently, the economist argues, the environmentalists' conclusion is probably wrong. Reasoning What function is served by the statement that Tropicorp's actions do not serve even its own economic interest? What function is served by the statement that the environmentalists' conclusion is probably wrong? The first statement is a conclusion that the economist attributes to environmentalists. The second statement is the conclusion of an argument presented by the economist. A The first states the conclusion of the argument that is attributed to environmentalists; it does not support—nor is it meant to—the conclusion of the economist. B The second statement, not the first, is the conclusion of the economist's argument. C The first is the conclusion attributed to environmentalists and is not meant merely as support for that conclusion. D Correct. The first states the conclusion of the environmentalists' argument as the economist presents it; the second is the conclusion of the economist's argument. E Neither statement is meant as support for the economist's conclusion, nor does it offer such support. The correct answer is D.
34. Although the school would receive financial benefits if it had soft drink vending machines in the cafeteria, we should not allow them. Allowing soft drink machines there would not be in our students' interest. If our students start drinking more soft drinks, they will be less healthy. The argument depends on which of the following?
A.If the soft drink vending machines were placed in the cafeteria, students would consume more soft drinks as a result.
B.The amount of soft drinks that most students at the school currently drink is not detrimental to their health.
C.Students are apt to be healthier if they do not drink soft drinks at all than if they just drink small amounts occasionally.
D.Students will not simply bring soft drinks from home if the soft drink vending machines are not placed in the cafeteria.
E.The school's primary concern should be to promote good health among its students.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Allowing soft drink vending machines in a school cafeteria would financially benefit the school, but students who drink more soft drinks would become less healthy. Reasoning What must be true in order for the claim that students drinking more soft drinks would cause them to become less healthy to justify the conclusion that soft drink vending machines should not be allowed in the cafeteria? The argument is that because drinking more soft drinks would be unhealthy for the students, allowing the vending machines would not be in the students' interest, so the vending machines should not be allowed. This reasoning depends on the implicit factual assumption that allowing the vending machines would result in the students drinking more soft drinks. It also depends on the implicit value judgment that receiving financial benefits should be less important to the school than preventing a situation that would make the students less healthy. A Correct. If the cafeteria vending machines would not result in students consuming more soft drinks, then allowing the machines would not harm the students' health in the way the argument assumes. B Even if the amount of soft drinks the students currently drink were unhealthy, enabling the students to drink more could make them even less healthy. C Even if drinking small amounts of soft drinks occasionally would not harm the students, vending machines in the cafeteria could lead the students to drink excessive amounts. D Even if students who cannot buy soft drinks in the cafeteria sometimes bring them from home instead, adding vending machines in the cafeteria could increase the students' overall soft drink consumption. E A concern does not have to be the primary one in order to be valid and important. It could be held that promoting students' good health should not be the schools' primary concern but should still be a more important concern than the financial benefits from the vending machines. The correct answer is A.
35. Many athletes inhale pure oxygen after exercise in an attempt to increase muscular reabsorption of oxygen. Measured continuously after exercise, however, the blood lactate levels of athletes who inhale pure oxygen are practically identical, on average, to those of athletes who breathe normal air. The lower the blood lactate level is, the higher the muscular reabsorption of oxygen is. If the statements above are all true, they most strongly support which of the following conclusions?
A.Athletes' muscular reabsorption of oxygen is not increased when they inhale pure oxygen instead of normal air.
B.High blood lactate levels cannot be reduced.
C.Blood lactate levels are a poor measure of oxygen reabsorption by muscles.
D.The amount of oxygen reabsorbed by an athlete's muscles always remains constant.
E.The inhaling of pure oxygen has no legitimate role in athletics.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Blood lactate levels after exercise are practically identical in athletes who breathe normal air and in those who inhale pure oxygen after exercise. The lower the blood lactate level, the higher the muscular reabsorption of oxygen. Reasoning What conclusion do the stated facts most strongly support? We are told that lower blood lactate levels correspond consistently to higher muscular reabsorption of oxygen. Since athletes who breathe pure oxygen after exercise have blood lactate levels practically identical to those in athletes who breathe normal air, probably muscular reabsorption of oxygen does not differ significantly between athletes who breathe pure oxygen and those who breathe pure air. A Correct. As explained above, the stated facts suggest that muscular reabsorption of oxygen does not differ significantly between athletes who breathe pure oxygen and those who breathe pure air. So breathing pure oxygen instead of normal air after exercise probably does not increase athletes' muscular reabsorption of oxygen. B None of the statements indicates that blood lactate levels cannot be reduced by means other than inhaling pure oxygen. C We are told that blood lactate levels are negatively correlated with muscular reabsorption of oxygen. This negative correlation might allow muscular reabsorption of oxygen to be precisely determined by measuring blood lactate levels. D Muscular reabsorption of oxygen might vary for reasons unrelated to whether an athlete has been inhaling pure oxygen. E Inhaling pure oxygen might have some legitimate role unrelated to muscular reabsorption of oxygen. The correct answer is A.
36. Boreal owls range over a much larger area than do other owls of similar size. Scientists have hypothesized that it is scarcity of prey that leads the owls to range so widely. This hypothesis would be hard to confirm directly, since it is not possible to produce a sufficiently accurate count of the populations of small mammals inhabiting the forests where boreal owls live. Careful study of owl behavior has, however, shown that boreal owls do range over larger areas when they live in regions where food of the sort eaten by small mammals is comparatively sparse. This indicates that the scientists' hypothesis is not sheer speculation. In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?
A.The first presents an explanatory hypothesis; the second states the main conclusion of the argument.
B.The first presents an explanatory hypothesis; the second presents evidence tending to support this hypothesis.
C.The first presents an explanatory hypothesis; the second presents evidence to support an alternative explanation.
D.The first describes a position that the argument opposes; the second presents evidence to undermine the support for the position being opposed.
E.The first describes a position that the argument opposes; the second states the main conclusion of the argument.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Construction Situation The boreal owl range over a much larger area than owls of similar size. Scientists hypothesize they do so because of prey scarcity. Counting the owls' prey—small mammals—in the boreal owls' habitat is inherently difficult. This makes the scientists' hypothesis hard to confirm directly. However, it has been found that boreal owls range widely when they inhabit regions with relatively little food for the small mammals they prey on. Reasoning What function is served by the statement that it is scarcity of prey that leads the owls to range so widely? What function is served by the statement that boreal owls range widely if food for their small-mammal prey is relatively sparse in the region they inhabit? The first statement expresses a hypothesis that seeks to explain the comparatively wide range of boreal owls. The second statement serves to provide some indirect evidence for the scientists' hypothesis. A The main conclusion of the argument is that the scientists' hypothesis is not sheer speculation, i.e., that the scientists have based their hypothesis on some evidence that they have discovered. The first statement presents the scientists' hypothesis. The second statement cites some evidence for the hypothesis and is not the main conclusion of the argument. B Correct. As stated, the first presents an explanatory hypothesis, while the second cites some indirect evidence for the hypothesis. C The second statement cites some indirect evidence for the scientists' hypothesis, not for some other hypothesis. D The argument does not oppose the scientists' hypothesis, presented in the first statement; the second statement cites evidence for the hypothesis, and does not cite evidence for a position the argument opposes. E The second statement does not present the argument's main conclusion. The main conclusion is that the scientists' hypothesis is not mere speculation. The correct answer is B.
37. Last year a record number of new manufacturing jobs were created. Will this year bring another record? Well, any new manufacturing job is created either within an existing company or by the start-up of a new company. Within existing firms, new jobs have been created this year at well below last year's record pace. At the same time, there is considerable evidence that the number of new companies starting up will be no higher this year than it was last year and there is no reason to think that the new companies starting up this year will create more jobs per company than did last year's start-ups. So clearly, the number of new jobs created this year will fall short of last year's record. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
A.The first is a claim that the argument challenges; the second is an explicit assumption on which that challenge is based.
B.The first is a claim that the argument challenges; the second is a judgment advanced in support of the main conclusion of the argument.
C.The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second is an objection that has been raised against that main conclusion.
D.The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second is a judgment advanced in support of that main conclusion.
E.The first and the second are each claims that have been advanced in support of a position that the argument opposes.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Manufacturing jobs are created either within existing companies or in start-ups. Manufacturing jobs are being created at a much slower rate this year than last year. It seems likely that the number of new start-ups will not exceed last year's number and that the average number of manufacturing jobs per start-up will not exceed last year's number. So fewer manufacturing jobs are likely to be created this year than last year. Reasoning What function is served by the statement that within existing firms, new jobs have been created this year at well below last year's record pace? What function is served by the statement that there is no reason to think that the new companies starting up this year will create more jobs per company than did last year's start-ups? The first statement is one of the statements used as support for the argument's main conclusion (the prediction about this year's job creation). The second statement gives another premise used as support for that prediction. A The argument does not challenge the claim made by the first statement; it uses the first and the second statement as support for the argument's main conclusion, the prediction about this year's job creation. B The argument does not challenge the claim made by the first statement, but uses the first and second statements as support for the argument's main conclusion. C The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second is not an objection that has been raised against the main conclusion. D Correct. The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second also provides support for the main conclusion. E Neither the first nor the second is meant to support a position that the argument opposes; rather, they are both meant to support the argument's main conclusion. The correct answer is D.
38. A study of ticket sales at a summer theater festival found that people who bought tickets to individual plays had a no-show rate of less than 1 percent, while those who paid in advance for all ten plays being performed that summer had a no-show rate of nearly 30 percent. This may be at least in part because the greater the awareness customers retain about the cost of an item, the more likely they are to use it. Which of the following would, if true, best serve as an alternative explanation of the results of the study?
A.The price per ticket was slightly cheaper for those who bought all ten tickets in advance.
B.Many people who attended the theater festival believed strongly that they should support it financially.
C.Those who attended all ten plays became eligible for a partial refund.
D.Usually, people who bought tickets to individual plays did so immediately prior to each performance that they attended.
E.People who arrived just before the performance began could not be assured of obtaining seats in a preferred location.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation People who bought tickets to individual plays at a theater festival had a much lower no-show rate than did people who paid in advance for all ten plays. Reasoning What factor other than greater awareness of the ticket costs could explain why people who bought tickets individually were more likely to attend the plays? The passage suggests that people who bought tickets individually were more likely to attend the plays because they were more vividly aware of what they had paid for each ticket. But there are other possible explanations—perhaps the people who bought the tickets individually were more eager to attend each play for its own sake, or had other characteristics or incentives that made them more likely to attend the plays. A A slight price difference would not plausibly explain why the no-show rate was thirty times greater among those who bought all the tickets in advance than among those who bought them individually. B This could be true of many people who bought their tickets individually as well as many who bought them in advance. C This would provide an added incentive for those who bought tickets in advance to attend all the plays. D Correct. If people who bought individual tickets usually did so right before each performance, they would have much less time after buying the tickets to change their minds about whether to attend than would people who bought all the tickets in advance. E If anything, this might present an additional difficulty for those who bought individual tickets without advance planning, so it would not help to explain the lower no-show rate among buyers of individual tickets. The correct answer is D.
39. Although there is no record of poet Edmund Spenser's parentage, we do know that as a youth Spenser attended the Merchant Tailors' School in London for a period between 1560 and 1570. Records from this time indicate that the Merchant Tailors' Guild then had only three members named Spenser: Robert Spenser, listed as a gentleman; Nicholas Spenser, elected the Guild's Warden in 1568; and John Spenser, listed as a "journeyman cloth-maker." Of these, the last was likely the least affluent of the three—and most likely Edmund's father, since school accounting records list Edmund as a scholar who attended the school at a reduced fee. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
A.Anybody in sixteenth-century London who made clothing professionally would have had to be a member of the Merchant Tailors' Guild.
B.The fact that Edmund Spenser attended the Merchant Tailors' School did not necessarily mean that he planned to become a tailor.
C.No member of the Guild could become Guild warden in sixteenth-century London unless he was a gentleman.
D.Most of those whose fathers were members of the Merchant Tailors' Guild were students at the Merchant Tailors' School.
E.The Merchant Tailors' School did not reduce its fees for the children of the more affluent Guild members.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Records indicate that the poet Edmund Spenser attended the Merchant Tailors' School for a reduced fee as a youth. There is no record of his parentage, but at the time the Merchant Tailors' Guild had only three members named Spenser, of whom the least affluent was probably John Spenser. Reasoning What must be true in order for the cited facts to support the conclusion that John Spenser was probably Edmund Spenser's father? The implicit reasoning is that since Edmund Spenser attended the Merchant Tailors' School at a reduced fee, his father must have been poor. And since John Spenser was probably the poorest of the three men named Spenser in the Merchant Tailors' Guild, he was probably Edmund Spenser's father, This reasoning assumes that only the children of poor parents had reduced fees at the Merchant Tailors' School, that the children at the school generally had fathers in the Merchant Tailors' Guild, that children in that time and place generally shared their fathers' surnames, and that the two other Spensers in the Merchant Tailors' Guild were not poor enough for their children to qualify for reduced fees. A John Spenser, as a tailor and member of the guild, could have been Edmund Spenser's father even if some other professional tailors did not belong to the guild and did not have children at the school. B Although Edmund Spenser became a poet as an adult, he and all his classmates might have attended the school as children because they planned to become tailors. C The argument assumes that a Guild's Warden probably would have been wealthier than a journeyman cloth-maker, but that might have been probable even if the Guild's Warden were not a "gentleman." D Even if most children of fathers in the guild did not attend the school, all the children who did attend the school might have had fathers in the guild. E Correct. If the school reduced its fees for children of wealthier guild members, then the fact that Edmund Spenser's fees were reduced would not provide evidence that his father was the poorest of the three Spensers in the guild, as the argument requires. The correct answer is E.
40. Rainwater contains hydrogen of a heavy form called deuterium. The deuterium content of wood reflects the deuterium content of rainwater available to trees during their growth. Wood from trees that grew between 16,000 and 24,000 years ago in North America contains significantly more deuterium than wood from trees growing today. But water trapped in several North American caves that formed during that same early period contains significantly less deuterium than rainwater in North America contains today. Which of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the two findings?
A.There is little deuterium in the North American caves other than the deuterium in the water trapped there.
B.Exposure to water after a tree has died does not change the deuterium content of the wood.
C.Industrialization in North America over the past 100 years has altered the deuterium content of rain.
D.Trees draw on shallow groundwater from rain that falls during their growth, whereas water trapped in caves may have fallen as rainwater thousands of years before the caves formed.
E.Wood with a high deuterium content is no more likely to remain preserved for long periods than is wood with a low deuterium content.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation In North America, wood from trees that grew 16,000 to 24,000 years ago contains more deuterium than wood from trees growing today. But water in caves that formed during that same period contains less deuterium than rainwater contains today. Reasoning What could explain the puzzling discrepancy between the observed deuterium levels in wood and in caves? Since the deuterium content of wood from trees reflects the deuterium content of rainwater available to the trees while they grew, the deuterium levels observed in wood suggests that North American rainwater contained more deuterium 16,000 to 24,000 years ago than it contains today. But this conclusion seems at odds with the low deuterium levels in water in caves that formed 16,000 to 24,000 years ago. Severn factors might explain the discrepancy: the water in those caves might not be rainwater from the period when the caves formed; or some natural process might have altered the deuterium levels in the cave water or the wood; or the wood or caves in which deuterium levels were measured might be statistically abnormal somehow. A If the caves had absorbed deuterium out of the rainwater trapped in them, there would probably be deuterium in the cave walls. So the observation that there is little deuterium in the caves apart from that in the water eliminates one possible explanation for the oddly low deuterium levels in the cave water. B This suggests that the deuterium levels in the wood accurately reflect higher deuterium levels in rainwater that fell 16,000 to 24,000 years ago, but it does not explain why the deuterium levels are so low in water in the caves that formed then. C This could explain why deuterium levels in rainwater have changed, but it does not help explain the discrepancy between the high deuterium levels in the wood and the low deuterium levels in the cave water. D Correct. If the water in the caves fell as rainwater thousands of years before the caves formed, it may date from a period when rainwater contained much less deuterium than during the period 16,000 to 24,000 years ago, and much less than today. E If wood with high deuterium content were more likely to be preserved, then wood from 16,000 to 24,000 years ago might have a high deuterium content even if the rainwater then had a low deuterium content. So the observation that wood with more deuterium is not more likely to be preserved eliminates one possible explanation for the discrepancy. The correct answer is D.