Critical Reasoning(批判性推理) Each of the critical reasoning questions is based on a short argument, a set of statements, or a plan of action. For each question, select the best answer of the choices given.
1. Enforcement of local speed limits through police monitoring has proven unsuccessful in the town of Ardane. In many nearby towns, speed humps (raised areas of pavement placed across residential streets, about 300 feet apart) have reduced traffic speeds on residential streets by 20 to 25 percent. In order to reduce traffic speed and thereby enhance safety in residential neighborhoods, Ardane's transportation commission plans to install multiple speed humps in those neighborhoods. Which of the following, if true, identifies a potentially serious drawback to the plan for installing speed humps in Ardane?
A.On residential streets without speed humps, many vehicles travel at speeds more than 25 percent above the posted speed limit.
B.Because of their high weight, emergency vehicles such as fire trucks and ambulances must slow almost to a stop at speed humps.
C.The residential speed limit in Ardane is higher than that of the nearby towns where speed humps were installed.
D.Motorists who are not familiar with the streets in Ardane's residential districts would be likely to encounter the speed humps unawares unless warned by signs and painted indicators.
E.Bicyclists generally prefer that speed humps be constructed so as to leave a space on the side of the road where bicycles can travel without going over the humps.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation Ardane's difficulty in getting compliance with speed limits has led it to propose the installation of speed humps to slow traffic. In nearby towns, speed humps have reduced speeds in residential areas by up to 25 percent. Reasoning Which one of the statements presented identifies a major disadvantage of the proposed installation of speed humps? Is it possible that they might slow traffic too much? Clearly, there is a general need for traffic to flow smoothly. Would speed humps affect all types of traffic equally? Perhaps not. For example, certain emergency vehicles must sometimes need to travel quickly through residential neighborhoods. A problem with speed humps is that some heavier vehicles must go very slowly over speed humps. A This indicates a drawback of not installing speed humps. B Correct. This information indicates a significant drawback—possibly leading to loss of life and property—of the plan to install the speed humps. C This suggests that installing speed humps might lower speeds significantly below the current speed limits. If speeds became very low, the result could be traffic gridlock that would have unforeseen consequences. However, we have insufficient information to evaluate such possibilities. D This is unlikely to be a drawback, since such warning signs are typically put in place whenever speed humps are installed. E This information provides no evidence of a drawback in Ardane's plan for speed humps, since the design of Ardane's planned speed-humps is not indicated. The correct answer is B.
2. Which of the choices most logically completes the following argument? NowNews, although still the most popular magazine covering cultural events in Kalopolis, has recently suffered a significant drop in advertising revenue because of falling circulation. Many readers have begun buying a competing magazine that, at 50 cents per copy, costs less than NowNews at $1.50 per copy. In order to boost circulation and thus increase advertising revenue, NowNews's publisher has proposed making it available at no charge. However, this proposal has a serious drawback, since ______.
A.those Kalopolis residents with the greatest interest in cultural events are regular readers of both magazines.
B.one reason NowNews's circulation fell was that its competitor's reporting on cultural events was superior.
C.the newsstands and stores that currently sell NowNews will no longer carry it if it is being given away for free.
D.at present, 10 percent of the total number of copies of each issue of NowNews are distributed free to students on college campuses in the Kalopolis area.
E.NowNews's competitor would begin to lose large amounts of money if it were forced to lower its cover price.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation NowNews is suffering declines in circulation and advertising revenue due to competition from a lower-priced magazine. The publisher proposes offering NowNews for free to reverse these declines. Reasoning What would suggest that the publisher's proposal will fail to increase circulation and advertising revenue? The proposal's intended effect is simply to increase advertising revenue by increasing circulation. Any evidence that offering the magazine for free will not result in more copies being circulated or will not attract advertisers would therefore be evidence of a drawback in the proposal. So a statement offering such evidence would logically complete the argument. A The fact that certain highly motivated Kalopolis residents still read NowNews even at a cost of $1.50 per issue leaves open the possibility that providing the magazine free might still boost readership. B This suggests that improving its cultural reporting might help NowNews increase its circulation, not that the publisher's proposal will fail to do so. C Correct. If the proposal leads newsstands and stores to stop carrying NowNews, circulation and advertising revenue would probably decline as a result. D Even if 10 percent of the copies of NowNews are already distributed for free, distributing the remaining 90 percent for free could still increase circulation and advertising revenue as the publisher intends. E Forcing a competing magazine to lower its cover price and lose lots of money would be an advantage rather than a drawback of the proposal, as far as the publisher of NowNews was concerned. The correct answer is C.
3. Archaeologist: Researchers excavating a burial site in Cyprus found a feline skeleton lying near a human skeleton. Both skeletons were in the same sediment at the same depth and equally welt-preserved, suggesting that the feline and human were buried together about 9,500 years ago. This shows that felines were domesticated around the time farming began, when they would have been useful in protecting stores of grain from mice. Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the archaeologist's argument?
A.Archaeologists have not found any remains of stores of grain in the immediate vicinity of the burial site.
B.The burial site in Cyprus is substantially older than any other known burial site in which a feline skeleton and a human skeleton appear to have been buried together.
C.Paintings found near the burial site seem to show people keeping felines as domestic companions, but do not show felines hunting mice.
D.In Cyprus, there are many burial sites dating from around 9,500 years ago in which the remains of wild animals appear to have been buried alongside human remains.
E.Before felines were domesticated, early farmers had no effective way to protect stores of grain from mice.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation A human skeleton and a feline skeleton were apparently buried together in Cyprus about 9,500 years ago. Reasoning What would most strongly suggest that the skeletons do not show that felines were domesticated around the time farming began? The argument implicitly assumes that farming in Cyprus began around 9,500 years ago, so evidence against that assumption would weaken the argument, The argument could also be weakened by evidence that felines were domesticated much earlier, that the feline Skeleton was not from a domesticated cat, or that the two skeletons were not actually buried together around 9,500 years ago. A Even if archaeologists searched for evidence of a grain store, the fact that no such evidence was found near the burial site is at best only weak evidence that no grain store existed there or slightly farther away. B The lack of corroborating evidence from other burial sites would weaken the argument slightly but would still be compatible with the hypothesis that this site revealed one of the very first burials of a domesticated cat. C This would cast doubt on the hypothesis that cats were domesticated mainly to protect stores of grain, but not on the argument's conclusion that cats were domesticated around the time farming began. D Correct. If many wild animals were buried alongside humans in Cyprus around 9,500 years ago, then the feline skeleton is just as likely to be that of a wild animal than that of a domesticated cat. E Since this would provide an additional reason why early farmers might have domesticated the local cats, it would strengthen rather than weaken the argument. The correct answer is D.
4. The heavy traffic in Masana is a growing drain on the city's economy—the clogging of the streets of the central business district alone cost the economy more than $1.2 billion over the past year. In order to address this problem, officials plan to introduce congestion pricing, by which drivers would pay to enter the city's most heavily trafficked areas during the busiest times of the day. Which of the following, if true, would most strongly indicate that the plan will be a success?
A.Approximately one-fifth of the vehicles in the central business district are in transit from one side of the city to the other.
B.Planners expect that, without congestion pricing, traffic in Masana is likely to grow by 6 percent in the next five years.
C.In other urban areas, congestion pricing has strongly encouraged carpooling (sharing of rides by private commuters).
D.Several studies have shown that a reduction in traffic of 15 percent in Masana could result in 5,500 or more new jobs.
E.Over 30 percent of the vehicles in the city's center are occupied by more than one person.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation Traffic congestion in Masana has been harming the city's economy. To address the problem, officials plan to make drivers pay to enter the city's most heavily trafficked areas during the busiest times of day. Reasoning What would most strongly suggest that the plan will reduce the harm to Masana's economy from traffic congestion? In order to succeed, the plan will have to be implemented and effectively enforced. Furthermore, the prices drivers pay will have to be high enough to significantly change their behavior in ways that reduce the amount of traffic congestion in the city. Finally, the economic benefits from the reduced traffic congestion will have to substantially outweigh any economically damaging side effects of the congestion pricing. Any evidence that any of these conditions will hold would provide at least some support for the prediction that the plan will succeed. A This provides no evidence that the congestion pricing would affect the behavior of either the one-fifth of drivers whose vehicles traverse the city or of the other four-fifths of drivers, nor does it give any evidence that the plan would produce overriding economic benefits. B This indicates that the traffic problem will grow worse if the plan is not implemented, but it does not provide any evidence that the plan will help address the problem. C Correct. This indicates that similar plans have successfully changed drivers' behavior in other cities in a way likely to reduce the number of cars on the road in heavily trafficked areas at busy times of day without producing harmful economic side effects. Thus, it provides evidence that the strategy could also be successful in Masana. D Although this suggests that reducing traffic congestion would be economically beneficial, it doesn't provide any evidence that the plan will succeed in reducing traffic congestion. E This suggests that many drivers in the city center are already carpooling, which, if anything, indicates that the plan will be less able to further affect those drivers' behavior and thus could be less effective than it might otherwise be. The correct answer is C.
5. Economist: The most economically efficient way to reduce emissions of air pollutants is to tax them in proportion to the damage they are likely to cause. But in Country Y, many serious pollutants are untaxed and unregulated, and policy makers strongly oppose new taxes. Therefore, the best way to achieve a reduction in air pollutant emissions in Country Y would be to institute fixed upper limits on them. Which of the following is an assumption of the economist's argument?
A.Policy makers in Country Y oppose all new taxes equally strongly, regardless of any benefits they may provide.
B.Country Y's air pollutant emissions would not fall significantly if they were taxed in proportion to the damage they are likely to cause.
C.Policy makers in Country Y strongly favor reductions in air pollutant emissions.
D.Country Y's policy makers believe that air pollutant emissions should be reduced with maximum economic efficiency.
E.Policy makers in Country Y do not oppose setting fixed upper limits on air pollutant emissions as strongly as they oppose new taxes.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Although taxing air pollution emissions in proportion to the damage they cause is the most economically efficient way to reduce those emissions, many serious pollutants in Nation Y are untaxed and unregulated, and the nation's policy makers strongly oppose new taxes. Therefore, fixed upper limits on such emissions would more effectively reach this goal. Reasoning What must be true in order for the factors the economist cites to support the claim that fixing upper limits on air pollutant emissions in Nation Y would be the best way to reduce those emissions? Political opposition to taxation in Nation Y is the only factor the economist cites to support the argument's conclusion that it would be best to institute fixed upper limits on air pollutants. In order for the premise to support the conclusion, there must be less political opposition in Nation Y to instituting such limits than there would be to the proportional taxation approach the economist prefers. A Even if the policy makers oppose some new taxes less than others, they could still oppose the proportional taxation approach strongly enough for it to be utterly infeasible. B Even if the proportional taxation scheme would significantly reduce emissions, it still might not be the best approach for Nation Y if it would generate too much political opposition to be viable there. C Even if policy makers in Nation Y do not strongly favor reducing emissions, fixing upper limits on emissions might still be a better and more politically feasible way to reduce emissions than any alternative is. D Since fixing upper emissions limits would be no more economically efficient than the proportional taxation scheme, the policy makers' support for economic efficiency would not make the former approach any more politically feasible than the latter. E Correct. If the policy makers opposed fixing upper emissions limits as strongly as they oppose new taxes, then their opposition to new taxes would no longer support the conclusion that fixing the emissions limits is a better way to reduce emissions. The correct answer is E.
6. Humans get Lyme disease from infected ticks. Ticks get infected by feeding on animals with Lyme disease, but the ease of transmission from host animal to tick varies. With most species of host animal, transmission of Lyme disease to ticks is extremely rare, but white- footed mice are an exception, readily passing Lyme disease to ticks. And white-footed mouse populations greatly expand, becoming the main food source for ticks, in areas where biodiversity is in decline. The information in the passage most strongly supports which of the following?
A.In areas where many humans are infected with Lyme disease, the proportion of ticks infected with Lyme disease is especially high.
B.Very few animals that live in areas where there are no white-footed mice are infected with Lyme disease.
C.Humans are less at risk of contracting Lyme disease in areas where biodiversity is high.
D.Ticks feed on white-footed mice only when other host species are not available to them.
E.The greater the biodiversity of an area, the more likely any given host animal in that area is to pass Lyme disease to ticks.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation White-footed mice readily pass Lyme disease to ticks, which pass it to humans. White-footed mouse populations expand where biodiversity is declining. Reasoning What conclusion do the stated facts support? Since declining biodiversity causes white-footed mouse populations to increase, and white-footed mice are especially likely to pass Lyme disease to ticks, and ticks pass it to humans, declining biodiversity could reasonably be expected to increase the incidence of Lyme disease in both ticks and humans. A In areas where many humans are infected with Lyme disease, the total number of ticks may be unusually high, so even if the number of infected ticks is unusually high, the proportion of infected ticks may not be unusually high B Most animals with Lyme disease may get it from sources other than ticks that have fed on infected mice. C Correct. If biodiversity is high, then any biodiversity decline that has already begun has likely not yet reached a point where white-footed mouse populations have greatly expanded, so the risk of people contracting Lyme disease is still relatively less than in areas where biodiversity is low and where significant decline in biodiversity has likely already occurred. D Even if ticks feed on white-footed mice when few other species are available for them to feed on, they may also sometimes feed on white-footed mice when there are many other species for them to feed on. E The passage suggests that the overall incidence of Lyme disease is probably lower in more biodiverse areas, so any given host animal in those areas would probably be less likely to pass Lyme disease to a tick. The correct answer is C.
7. Many industrialized nations are trying to reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, a gas released by the burning of fossil fuels. One proposal is to replace conventional cement, which is made with calcium carbonate, by a new "eco-cement." This new cement, made with magnesium carbonate, absorbs large amounts of carbon dioxide when exposed to the atmosphere. Therefore, using eco-cement for new concrete building projects will significantly help reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
A.The cost of magnesium carbonate, currently greater than the cost of calcium carbonate, probably will fall as more magnesium carbonate is used in cement manufacture.
B.Eco-cement is strengthened when absorbed carbon dioxide reacts with the cement.
C.Before the development of eco-cement, magnesium-based cement was considered too susceptible to water erosion to be of practical use.
D.The manufacture of eco-cement uses considerably less fossil fuel per unit of cement than the manufacture of conventional cement does.
E.Most building-industry groups are unaware of the development or availability of eco-cement.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Many nations are trying to reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. One proposed method is to use a new type of "eco-cement" that absorbs carbon dioxide from air. Reasoning What evidence, combined with the cited facts, would most support the prediction that using eco-cement will significantly help reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide? The prediction assumes that the use of eco-cement would be an effective way to reduce carbon dioxide levels. Any evidence supporting this assumption will support the prediction. A Since eco-cement uses magnesium carbonate, the prediction that magnesium carbonate prices will fall suggests that a potential financial barrier to widespread eco-cement use will diminish. However, those prices may not fall enough to make eco-cement cost-competitive with regular cement. B Even if absorbed carbon dioxide strengthens eco-cement, the strengthened eco-cement might still be much weaker than regular cement and thus might never become widely used, in which case it will not significantly help reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. C Even if eco-cement is less susceptible to water erosion than earlier forms of magnesium-based cement were, it might still be much more susceptible to water erosion than regular cement is, and thus might never become widely used. D Correct. This suggests that manufacturing eco-cement produces much less carbon dioxide than manufacturing regular cement does, so it supports the claim that widespread use of eco-cement would be an effective way to reduce carbon dioxide levels. E If anything, this lack of awareness makes it less likely that eco-cement will become widely used, which in turn makes it less likely that eco-cement will significantly help reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. The correct answer is D.
8. Advertisement: When your car's engine is running at its normal operating temperature, any major brand of motor oil will protect it about as well as Tuff does. When the engine is cold, it is a different story: Tuff motor oil flows better at lower temperatures than its major competitors do. So, if you want your car's engine to have maximum protection, you should use Tuff. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument in the advertisement?
A.Tuff motor oil provides above-average protection for engines that happen to overheat.
B.Tuff motor oil is periodically supplied free of charge to automobile manufacturers to use in factory-new cars.
C.Tuff motor oil's share of the engine oil market peaked three years ago.
D.Tuft motor oil, like any motor oil, is thicker and flows less freely at cold temperatures than at hot temperatures.
E.Tuff motor oil is manufactured at only one refinery and shipped from there to all markets.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation An advertisement argues that since Tuff motor oil flows better than its major competitors at low temperatures and works about as well as they do at normal temperatures, it provides maximum protection for car engines. Reasoning What additional evidence would suggest that Tuff motor oil provides the best available protection for car engines? The argument requires the assumptions that no type of motor oil other than the "major brands" provides superior protection, that flowing better at lower temperatures ensures superior protection at those temperatures, and that Tuff protects car engines at least as well as its competitors do at above-normal temperatures. Any evidence supporting any of these assumptions would strengthen the argument. A Correct. If Tuff provides above-average protection when engines overheat, in addition to the solid protection it provides at normal and low temperatures, it may well provide the best available protection overall. B The company that makes Tuff might give automobile manufacturers free motor oil as a promotional gimmick even if Tuff is an inferior product. C Tuff's sales might have declined over the past three years because consumers have realized that Tuff is an inferior product. D The similar responses of Tuff and other motor oils to temperature changes do not suggest that Tuff provides better protection overall than those other motor oils do. E Even if Tuff is manufactured at only one refinery, it may still be an inferior product. The correct answer is A.
9. The Testament of William Thorpe was published around 1530 as an appendix to Thorpe's longer Examination. Many scholars, however, doubt the attribution of the Testament to Thorpe because, whereas the Examination is dated 1406, the Testament is dated 1460. One scholar has recently argued that the 1460 date be amended to 1409, based on the observation that when these numbers are expressed as Roman numerals, MCCCCLX and MCCCCIX, it becomes easy to see how the dates might have become confused through scribal error. Which of the following, if true, would most support the scholar's hypothesis concerning the date of the Testament?
A.The sole evidence that historians have had that William Thorpe died no earlier than 1460 was the presumed date of publication of the Testament.
B.In the preface to the 1530 publication, the editor attributes both works to William Thorpe.
C.Few writers in fifteenth-century England marked dates in their works using only Roman numerals.
D.The Testament alludes to a date, "Friday, September 20," as apparently contemporaneous with the writing of the Testament, and September 20 fell on a Friday in 1409 but not in 1460.
E.The Testament contains few references to historical events that occurred later than 1406.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation The Testament of William Thorpe, dated 1460, was published around 1530 as an appendix to Thorpe's Examination, dated 1406. But when expressed in Roman numerals, 1460 could easily be confused with 1409. Reasoning Given the facts cited, what would provide additional evidence that Thorpe's Testament dates from 1409 rather than 1460? The scholar's hypothesis that the work dates from 1409 is based on the observation that in Roman numerals, 1409 might easily have been improperly transcribed as 1460. This hypothesis could be supported by evidence that the manuscripts were dated in Roman numerals, or by any independent evidence that 1409 is a more likely date for the Testament than 1460. A This suggests that scholars have no biographical evidence that the Testament was published in 1460, but they could still have abundant evidence of other types to support that date, such as the text's cultural allusions or references to other works. B The editor of the 1530 publication could easily have been mistaken about the authorship of one or both works. And even if the editor were correct, Thorpe might have lived long enough to write one work in 1406 and the other in 1460. C This would cast doubt on the scholar's argument by providing evidence that the original manuscripts were not dated only in Roman numerals. D Correct. This provides strong evidence directly supporting the hypothesis that the Testament dates from 1409 specifically. E Even if the Testament contained only one reference to a historical event that occurred later than 1406 (for example, one event in 1459), that reference alone could provide strong evidence that the work dates from 1460 rather than 1409. The correct answer is D.
10. A prominent investor who holds a large stake in the Burton Tool Company has recently claimed that the company is mismanaged, citing as evidence the company's failure to slow down production in response to a recent rise in its inventory of finished products. It is doubtful whether an investor's sniping at management can ever be anything other than counterproductive, but in this case, it is clearly not justified. It is true that an increased inventory of finished products often indicates that production is outstripping demand, but in Burton's case it indicates no such thing. Rather, the increase in inventory is entirely attributable to products that have already been assigned to orders received from customers. In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?
A.The first states a generalization that underlies the position that the argument as a whole opposes; the second provides evidence to show that the generalization does not apply in the case at issue.
B.The first states a generalization that underlies the position that the argument as a whole opposes; the second clarifies the meaning of a specific phrase as it is used in that generalization.
C.The first provides evidence to support the conclusion of the argument as a whole; the second is evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument as a whole opposes.
D.The first provides evidence to support the conclusion of the argument as a whole; the second states that conclusion.
E.The first and the second each provide evidence against the position that the argument as a whole opposes.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation An investor has criticized a company, based on the company's recent increase in inventory and on its not decreasing production as a result of this increase. Reasoning What roles do the two boldfaced statements play in the argument? The argument suggests that the investor's criticism is based on a principle that increased inventory of finished products often indicates that production is faster than it should be, given the existing demand for a company's products. However, the argument then states that the increase in inventory at the company in question is "entirely attributable" to existing orders of products. The argument thus suggests that the investor's criticism is misplaced, based on a suggestion as to (1) a principle that the investor could be using to support her argument and (2) an explanation as to why the principle does not apply to the company. The two boldfaced portions state these respective elements. A Correct. The first boldfaced portion states the principle that may provide the basis of the investor's criticism, which the argument as a whole opposes. The second boldfaced portion is a statement that, if true, the generalization would not apply to the company in question. B This option correctly describes the first of the boldfaced portions. However, rather than clarifying an aspect of the meaning of the first generalization, the second boldfaced portion indicates why the first generalization may not apply to the company. C This option incorrectly describes both of the boldfaced portions. The first boldfaced portion states a general principle that could support the position that the argument opposes. The second boldfaced portion then criticizes the application of the principle. D Because the second boldfaced portion describes a fundamental premise rather than the conclusion, the description in this option of the second boldfaced portion is incorrect. E If we think of an argument as a set of statements that are meant to support, or provide evidence for, a conclusion, then, because the boldfaced statements are indeed part of the argument, they may be seen as providing evidence for the position the argument opposes. However, a description of the roles of the boldfaced statements in this argument would need to provide more detail, such as what option A provides. The correct answer is A.
11. To reduce productivity losses from employees calling in sick, Corporation X implemented a new policy requiring employees to come into work unless they were so sick that they had to go to a doctor. But a year after the policy was implemented, a study found that Corporation X's overall productivity losses due to reported employee illnesses had increased. Which of the following, if true, would best explain why the policy produced the reverse of its intended effect?
A.After the policy was implemented, employees more frequently went to the doctor when they felt sick.
B.Before the policy was implemented, employees who were not sick at all often called in sick.
C.Employees coming into work when sick often infect many of their coworkers.
D.Unusually few employees became genuinely sick during the year after the policy was implemented.
E.There are many other factors besides employee illness that can adversely affect productivity.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation After a company started requiring employees to come to work unless they were sick enough to have to go to a doctor, the company's productivity losses from reported employee illness increased. Reasoning What would explain why the policy increased productivity losses from reported employee illness? Any factors that could have plausibly caused the policy to increase employee absenteeism from reported illness or to reduce the employees' productivity at work as a result of reported illness could explain why the policy increased productivity losses from reported illness. A Even though the policy required sick employees to consult a doctor, there is no reason to think that employees' doing so would have made them less productive than they would otherwise have been when absent from work. B This suggests that the policy made it more difficult for employees to falsely claim illness as an excuse for a work absence. Reduction in absences should result in productivity gains rather than losses. C Correct. This could have been a result of the policy and would have led to productivity losses possibly greater than those seen before the policy was introduced. D This would help to explain lower productivity losses from reported illness after the policy was implemented, not higher productivity losses. E The question is what could explain how the policy increased productivity losses from reported employee illness specifically, not productivity losses from any other factors. The correct answer is C.
12. Advertising by mail has become much less effective, with fewer consumers responding. Because consumers are increasingly overwhelmed by the sheer amount of junk mail they receive, most discard almost all offers without considering them. Thus, an effective way for corporations to improve response rates would be to more carefully target the individuals to whom they mail advertising, thereby cutting down on the amount of junk mail each consumer receives. Which of the following, if true, would most support the recommendation above?
A.There are cost-effective means by which corporations that currently advertise by mail could improve response rates.
B.Many successful corporations are already carefully targeting the individuals to whom they mail advertising.
C.Any consumer who, immediately after receiving an advertisement by mail, merely glances at it, is very likely to discard it.
D.Improvements in the quality of the advertising materials used in mail that is carefully targeted to individuals can improve the response rate for such mail.
E.Response rates to carefully targeted advertisements by mail are considerably higher, on average, than response rates to most other forms of advertising.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation Advertising by mail has become less effective because consumers overwhelmed with the amount of junk mail they receive discard almost all of it without considering it. Reasoning What would most help to support the claim that making mail advertising more carefully targeted would improve response rates? The passage recommends targeted advertising, reasoning that since targeted advertising would reduce the total amount of junk mail consumers receive, it would generate higher response rates. Any additional evidence for the claim that carefully targeted advertising would improve response rates would support this recommendation. A Even if targeted advertising and every other means of improving response rates were too expensive to be cost-effective, targeted advertising could still be effective for any corporation willing to pay the expense. B If many corporations already mail targeted advertising, and mail advertising is nonetheless yielding declining response rates, that suggests that targeted mail is an ineffective way to increase response rates. C This could be equally true for targeted and untargeted mail advertising, so it does not suggest that the former is more effective. D The question under consideration is whether more carefully targeted mail advertising would in itself increase response rates, not whether higher quality advertising would do so. E Correct. This provides some evidence that carefully targeted mail advertising is associated with higher response rates than untargeted mail advertising is, and therefore that targeting mail advertising more carefully would improve response rates. The correct answer is E.
13. Petrochemical industry officials have said that the extreme pressure exerted on plant managers during the last five years to improve profits by cutting costs has done nothing to impair the industry's ability to operate safely. However, environmentalists contend that the recent rash of serious oil spills and accidents at petrochemical plants is traceable to cost-cutting measures. Which of the following, if true, would provide the strongest support for the position held by industry officials?
A.The petrochemical industry benefits if accidents do not occur, since accidents involve risk of employee injury as well as loss of equipment and product.
B.Petrochemical industry unions recently demanded that additional money be spent on safety and environmental protection measures, but the unions readily abandoned those demands in exchange for job security.
C.Despite major cutbacks in most other areas of operation, the petrochemical industry has devoted more of its resources to environmental and safety measures in the last five years than in the preceding five years.
D.There is evidence that the most damaging of the recent oil spills would have been prevented had cost-cutting measures not been instituted.
E.Both the large fines and the adverse publicity generated by the most recent oil spill have prompted the petrochemical industry to increase the resources devoted to oil-spill prevention.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Petrochemical industry officials claim that pressure on plant managers to cut costs over the past five years has not made the industry's operations any less safe. Environmentalists claim that recent oil spills and accidents show otherwise. Reasoning What evidence would most strongly suggest that the cost-cutting pressure was not responsible for the recent rash of oil spills and accidents? Evidence that the plant managers did not cut costs in any specific ways likely to have increased the likelihood of oil spills and accidents would support the industry officials' position that the cost-cutting pressure has not made petrochemical operations any less safe. A Even if the petrochemical industry has good reasons to try to prevent accidents, the recent rash of serious accidents suggests that it is failing to do so and that the cost-cutting pressure might be responsible. B This suggests that the unions, whose members could directly observe the cost-cutting pressure's effects, share the environmentalists' belief that this pressure contributed to the oil spills and accidents. Because the unions abandoned their demands, their concerns probably have not been addressed. C Correct. This suggests that, as the industry officials claim, the cost-cutting pressure has not in itself reduced the industry's effectiveness at preventing oil spills and accidents. Thus, it suggests that other factors are probably responsible for the recent problems. D This clearly suggests that the cost-cutting measures have indeed caused the industry to operate less safely, as the environmentalists claim. E Although this suggests that the industry is now trying to address the recent problems, the cost-cutting measures might nonetheless have caused all those problems. The correct answer is C.
14. A company has developed a new sensing device that, according to the company's claims, detects weak, ultralow-frequency electromagnetic signals associated with a beating heart. These signals, which pass through almost any physical obstruction, are purportedly detected by the device even at significant distances. Therefore, if the company's claims are true, their device will radically improve emergency teams' ability to locate quickly people who are trapped within the wreckage of collapsed buildings. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
A.People trapped within the wreckage of collapsed buildings usually have serious injuries that require prompt medical treatment.
B.The device gives a distinctive reading when the signals it detects come from human beings rather than from any other living beings.
C.Most people who have survived after being trapped in collapsed buildings were rescued within two hours of the building's collapse.
D.Ultralow-frequency signals are not the only electromagnetic signals that can pass through almost any physical obstruction.
E.Extensive training is required in order to operate the device effectively.
A B C D E
B
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation A new sensing device can detect—at significant distances and even behind obstructions such as walls—weak, ultralow-frequency electromagnetic signals that are characteristic of heartbeats. It is predicted, based on this information, that the new device will shorten the time it currently takes to locate people buried under collapsed buildings but still alive. Reasoning What new information, if accurate, would provide further evidence that would support the prediction? The existing evidence fails to tell us whether the new device can distinguish between human heartbeats and heartbeats from other species. If the device does not quickly provide signals characteristic of human heartbeats, then the prediction might not be correct; even if the prediction eventually turns out to be correct, the evidence given for it is insufficient. Any new information that implies the signals provided by the device can discern a human heartbeat from those of nonhuman species will strengthen support for the prediction. A This implies that prompt rescue of people trapped under collapsed buildings is vitally important. The prediction is that the new device will speed rescue of such people, but the new information here does nothing to indicate that the prediction is accurate. B Correct. This information fills an important gap (already discussed) in the evidence for the prediction. C Even if this is true, shortening the time for locating and rescuing people from collapsed buildings would clearly be beneficial. However, the new information given here does not make it more likely that the prediction is correct. D If this is correct, then if anything, it somewhat undermines the evidence given for the prediction, since it raises the possibility that the detection ability of the device might be impeded by "noise" from irrelevant electromagnetic signals near the collapsed building. E This could lead to practical obstacles when using the device even in emergency situations, with the result that the device might never actually be used by competent personnel to "improve emergency teams' ability" because the "extensive training" would cost too much. The correct answer is B.
15. Economist: The price of tap water in our region should be raised drastically. Supplies in local freshwater reservoirs have been declining for years because water is being used faster than it can be replenished. Since the price of tap water has been low, few users have bothered to adopt even easy conservation measures. The two sections in boldface play which of the following roles in the economist's argument?
A.The first is a conclusion for which support is provided, and which in turn supports the main conclusion; the second is the main conclusion.
B.The first is an observation for which the second provides an explanation; the second is the main conclusion but not the only conclusion.
C.The first is a premise supporting the argument's main conclusion; so is the second.
D.The first is the only conclusion; the second provides an explanation for the first.
E.The first is the main conclusion; the second is a conclusion for which support is provided, and which in turn supports the first.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Local water supplies have been declining for years because of excessive water use and low prices. Few users have adopted even easy conservation measures. Reasoning What roles do the two boldface statements play in the argument? Both are factual observations. Since no further evidence or support is provided for either, neither can be a conclusion in the argument. However, interconnected causal explanations, signaled by because and since, are provided for both. The observation in the first boldface statement is causally explained by the further observation that water is being used faster than it can be replenished, which in turn is causally explained by the entire final sentence. The observation in the second boldface statement is causally explained by the observation that the price of tap water has been low. "lhe only remaining portion of the argument is the initial sentence, a recommendation supported by these four observations together, and by the causal claims in which they are embedded. Thus, the four observations (including the two boldface statements) and the causal claims containing them are all premises, and the initial statement is the argument's only conclusion. A As explained above, the two boldface statements are premises of the argument. Although causal explanations are provided for both, no support or evidence is provided for either. B As explained above, the second boldface statement does provide part of the causal explanation for the observation in the first boldface statement. But no support is provided for either statement, so neither is a conclusion. C Correct. As explained above, each of the statements is a premise that serves along with other claims to support the recommendation in the initial sentence, which is the argument's only conclusion, and in that sense its main conclusion. D As explained above, the second boldface statement does provide part of the causal explanation for the observation in the first boldface statement. But no support is provided for either statement, so neither is a conclusion in the argument. E As explained above, the two boldface statements are premises of the argument. Although causal explanations are provided for both, no support or evidence is provided for either. The correct answer is C.
16. Politician: Hybrid cars use significantly less fuel per kilometer than nonhybrids. And fuel produces air pollution, which contributes to a number of environmental problems. Motorists can save money by driving cars that are more fuel efficient, and they will be encouraged to drive hybrid cars if we make them aware of that fact. Therefore, we can help reduce the total amount of pollution emitted by cars in this country by highlighting this advantage of hybrid cars. Which of the following, if true, would most indicate a vulnerability of the politician's argument?
A.People with more fuel-efficient cars typically drive more than do those with less fuel-efficient cars.
B.Not all air pollution originates from automobiles.
C.Hybrid cars have already begun to gain popularity.
D.Fuel-efficient alternatives to hybrid cars will likely become available in the future.
E.The future cost of gasoline and other fuel cannot be predicted with absolute precision or certainty.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation According to a politician, hybrid cars use less fuel per kilometer than nonhybrids, and fuel produces air pollution. Motorists can save money by driving fuel-efficient cars, and will be encouraged to do so if made aware of the fact. The politician concludes that highlighting this fact will result in a reduction in air pollution. Reasoning What would suggest that telling motorists they can save money by driving fuel-efficient cars would not reduce automotive air pollution, despite the facts cited by the politician? The politician's implicit reasoning is that since hybrid cars use less fuel per kilometer, and fuel produces air pollution, motorists who drive hybrid cars must produce less air pollution than those who drive nonhybrids. The politician concludes that encouraging motorists to drive hybrid cars by telling them they would save money on fuel will therefore reduce automotive air pollution. Evidence that motorists who drive hybrid cars produce just as much automotive air pollution as those who drive nonhybrids would undermine this argument. A Correct. If drivers of hybrid cars tend to drive more kilometers than drivers of nonhybrids, then they may consume just as much fuel and produce just as much air pollution as the nonhybrid car drivers do, despite their lower fuel use per kilometer. B The politician's argument is only about air pollution from cars specifically, not air pollution from all sources. C Even if hybrid cars are beginning to gain popularity, informing motorists of the cost savings from fuel efficiency could help these cars become more popular than they would otherwise be. D Encouraging motorists to switch to hybrid cars now could reduce fuel use and automotive air pollution in the near future even if other, more fuel-efficient vehicles will become available further in the future. E Even if the future cost of fuel cannot be predicted accurately, encouraging motorists to switch to hybrid cars could reduce air pollution as the politician argues. The correct answer is A.
17. Which of the following most logically completes the passage? Pecan growers get a high price for their crop when pecans are comparatively scarce, but the price drops sharply when pecans are abundant. Thus, in high-yield years, growers often hold back part of their crop in refrigerated warehouses for one or two years, hoping for higher prices in the future. This year's pecan crop was the smallest in five years. It is nonetheless quite possible that a portion of this year's crop will be held back, since ______.
A.each of the last two years produced recordbreaking pecan yields
B.the quality of this year's pecan crop is no worse than the quality of the pecan crops of the previous five years
C.pecan prices have not been subject to sharp fluctuations in recent years
D.for some pecan growers, this year's crop was no smaller than last year's
E.the practice of holding back part of one year's crop had not yet become widespread the last time the pecan crop was as small as it was this year
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation The price of pecans tends to drop sharply in years when pecans are abundant. So in high-yield years, growers often hold back part of the harvest in refrigerated warehouses. This year's harvest was the smallest in five years. Reasoning What would provide the best completion of the argument? The argument's conclusion is that some of this year's crop might be held back. The blank to be completed should provide a reason in support of that conclusion. What would lead us to believe that some of this year's crop might go into cold storage even though the crop was unusually small? Only in high-yield years does this usually happen. But suppose there is already a large quantity of pecans in cold storage from previous harvests. Given this information, it would make perfect sense to expect that the pecans already in cold storage would be marketed first, while some of the latest crop would be stored. This would avoid the market oversupply and lower producer prices that might result if both all of this year's crop and all of the already stored pecans were marketed this year. A Correct. This answer choice provides information that makes it more probable that the conclusion is true. B The argument provides no information whatsoever that would suggest the decision to store or not to store pecans is based on evaluation of the crop's quality. C This information is of little or no relevance. It is reasonable to think that predictions about pecan prices this year would affect the decision to store or not to store. But the information in this answer choice sheds little or no light on what this year's pecan prices might be, given that, as the passage tells us, this year's crop is exceptionally small. D It is not surprising that some growers had crops this year that were as big as their crops the year before. But what matters, what affects the price of pecans, is the overall size of total pecan production and the abundance or scarcity of pecans at the time. E This piece of history about marketing and storage practices explains why pecans were not placed in storage in previous small-yield years, but it provides no reason to believe that some of the new pecan crop will be stored this year. The correct answer is A.
18. Coffee shop owner: A large number of customers will pay at least the fair market value for a cup of coffee, even if there is no formal charge. Some will pay more than this out of appreciation of the trust that is placed in them. And our total number of customers is likely to increase. We could therefore improve our net cash flow by implementing an honor system in which customers pay what they wish for coffee by depositing money in a can. Manager: We're likely to lose money on this plan. Many customers would cheat the system, paying a very small sum or nothing at all. Which of the following, if true, would best support the owner's plan, in light of the manager's concern?
A.The new system, if implemented, would increase the number of customers.
B.By roasting its own coffee, the shop has managed to reduce the difficulties (and cost) of maintaining an inventory of freshly roasted coffee.
C.Many customers stay in the cafe for long stretches of time.
D.The shop makes a substantial profit from pastries and other food bought by the coffee drinkers.
E.No other coffee shop in the area has such a system.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation The owner and the manager of a coffee shop disagree about whether allowing customers to pay for coffee on an honor system would increase or decrease profits. Reasoning What would be the best evidence that the honor-system plan would increase profits even if many customers cheated the system? The owner argues that profits would increase because many customers will choose to pay as much or more than before and the total number of customers will likely increase. But the manager points out that many customers would also choose to pay little or nothing. Assuming that the manager is correct about that, what further support could the owner present for the claim that the plan would still be profitable? A Since the owner has already basically asserted this, asserting it again would not provide any significant additional support for the plan. B This suggests that the shop is already profitable, not that the honor-system plan would make it more profitable. C Customers who stay in the care for long stretches would not necessarily pay any more per cup on the honor-system plan than other customers would. D Correct. If the customer base increases (as both the owner and the manager seem to agree), more customers will likely purchase highly profitable pastries and other foods, thus boosting profits. E The reason no other coffee shop in the area has an honor system may be that their owners and managers have determined that it would not be profitable. The correct answer is D.
19. Which of the following most logically completes the argument? By competing with rodents for seeds, black ants help control rodent populations that pose a public health risk. However, a very aggressive species of black ant, the Loma ant, which has recently invaded a certain region, has a venomous sting that is often fatal to humans. Therefore, the planned introduction into that region of ant flies, which prey on Loma ants, would benefit public health, since ______.
A.ant flies do not attack black ants other than Loma ants
B.Loma ants are less effective than many bird species in competing with rodents for seeds
C.certain other species of black ants are more effective than Loma ants in competing with rodents for seeds
D.the sting of Loma ants can also be fatal to rodents
E.some pesticides that could be used to control Loma ants are harmful to the environment
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Black ants help to control populations of rodents by competing with them for seeds. But a very aggressive species of black ant, the Loma ant, has a sting that can be fatal to humans. Ant flies prey on Loma ants and their presence can thereby benefit public health. Reasoning Which of the possible completions of the passage provides the most support for the conclusion? The argument's conclusion is that introducing ant flies into the region where Loma ants have recently invaded would benefit public health. We know from the passage that black ants, generally, benefit public health by keeping down rodent populations. However, the sting of Loma ants, a species of black ant, can be fatal to humans. Ant flies prey on Loma ants. To that extent their introduction in the region would tend to benefit public health by making fatal Loma stinging of humans less likely. But if these ant flies also prey on black ants other than the Loma ants, then to that extent they would undermine another public health benefit associated with controlling rodents. Thus, the information that ant flies do not prey on black ants other than Loma ants would provide strong logical support for the conclusion. A Correct. This most logically completes the argument because it addresses a potential downside of introducing the ant flies into the region. The potential downside is that it might reduce the desirable effect that other species of black ants have in keeping down the rodent populations. B We have no idea whether the bird species that are more effective than Loma ants at competing with rodents for seeds are even present in the region in question. C This does not help the conclusion very much because we do not know from the passage whether ant flies prey on other species of black ants besides Loma ants. D If anything, this is a reason not to introduce ant flies into the region. This answer choice at least suggests that Loma ants might have some positive effect on public health because they might keep down rodent populations by reducing their survival chances. E This provides very little support for the conclusion. It does not exclude the possibility that there are pesticides—perhaps several—that would control Loma ants effectively without harming the environment. So it is not a strong reason for introducing ant flies. The correct answer is A.
20. The city of Workney, in raising bus fares from $1.00 to $1.25, proposed that 18 fare tokens be sold for $20.00 to alleviate the extra burden of the fare increase on the city's poor people. Critics suggested alternatively that 9 fare tokens be sold for $10.00, because a $20.00 outlay would be prohibitive for p6or riders. The alternative proposal depends on which of the following assumptions?
A.Poor residents of Workney will continue to ride the buses in the same numbers despite the fare increase.
B.Riders who are poor would be more likely to take advantage of the savings afforded by the 9-token offer than would riders who are not poor.
C.The outlay of $10.00 for the purchase of 9 fare tokens would not be prohibitive for bus riders who are poor.
D.The proposed fare increase is needed for the purchase of new buses for the city's bus system.
E.Fewer riders would regularly purchase 18 fare tokens at once than would purchase only 9 fare tokens at once.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation The city of Workney raised bus fares from $1.00 to $1.25. To help poor people, the city proposed allowing people to block-purchase 18 tickets for $20.00. But critics argued that poor people could ill-afford to pay $20.00 at one time. Their alternative proposal was: allow block-purchase of 9 tickets for $10.00. Reasoning What did the critics assume in making their alternative proposal? The city's block-purchase proposal would result in a saving of $4.50 over the cost of purchasing 18 tickets separately, and the critics' alternative block-purchase proposal would result in a saving of $2.25 over the cost of purchasing 9 tickets separately. The savings per ticket on either proposal would be identical. But the critics' proposal assumes that people who would not be able to block-purchase 18 tickets for $20.00 would be able to block-purchase 9 tickets for $10.00. A The critics assume something incompatible with this. Their alternative was proposed because they believed that some poor residents would otherwise, at least sometimes, be unable to purchase bus tickets. B Nothing in the critics' proposal allows only poor people to benefit from the proposal. No information is given about the relative likelihoods of poor or nonpoor riders availing of the block-purchase option perhaps for convenience rather than for savings. C Correct. The critics' proposal depends on the assumption that poor bus riders would generally be able to block-purchase 9 tickets for $10.00. D The alternative proposal does not depend on assuming this. The proposal could still make sense even if the additional revenue from the fare increases was needed to pay higher wages to bus drivers. E The critics' proposal does not depend on assuming this. How many riders would block-purchase 18 tickets? How many would block-purchase 9 tickets? These are open questions, as far as the critics' proposal is concerned. The 9-ticket option might or might not turn out to be more frequently purchased than the 18-ticket option. The critics' concern is to make the 9-ticket option available to poor riders, not to prevent nonpoor riders from availing of it. The correct answer is C.
21. Birds have been said to be descended from certain birdlike dinosaur species with which they share distinctive structural features. The fossil record, however, shows that this cannot be so, since there are bird fossils that are much older than the earliest birdlike dinosaur fossils that have been found. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies?
A.The birdlike dinosaurs have no living descendants.
B.There are no flightless dinosaur species that have the distinctive structural features shared by birds and birdlike dinosaurs.
C.There are no birdlike dinosaur fossils that are older than the bird fossils but have not yet been unearthed.
D.It could not have been the case that some birds were descended from one of the birdlike dinosaur species and other birds from another.
E.Birds cannot have been descended from dinosaur species with which the birds do not share the distinctive structural features.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Although birds have been said to be descended from birdlike dinosaurs, some bird fossils predate the earliest known birdlike dinosaur fossils. Reasoning What must be true in order for the premise that some bird fossils predate the earliest known birdlike dinosaur fossils to support the conclusion that birds are not descended from birdlike dinosaurs? The argument implicitly reasons that since the cited bird fossils predate the earliest known birdlike dinosaur fossils, they must be from birds that lived before the earliest birdlike dinosaurs, and which therefore could not have been descended from birdlike dinosaurs. This reasoning assumes that any birdlike dinosaurs that lived before the first birds would have left fossils that still exist. It also assumes that no undiscovered birdlike dinosaur fossils predate the cited bird fossils. A The argument is only about whether birds are descended from birdlike dinosaurs. Whether birdlike dinosaurs have any living descendants other than birds is irrelevant. B The argument is only about birds and birdlike dinosaurs. It is not about other types of dinosaurs that were not birdlike. C Correct. If any undiscovered birdlike dinosaur fossils predate the cited bird fossils, then the latter fossils' age does not support the conclusion that birds are not descended from birdlike dinosaurs. D The argument purports to establish that the relative ages of bird fossils and birdlike dinosaur fossils show that birds cannot be descended from any of the known birdlike dinosaur species. In doing this, it acknowledges multiple birdlike dinosaur species and leaves open the question of whether some birds may be descended from one such species and other birds from another such species. E The argument does not claim that the known fossil record shows that birds cannot be descended from dinosaurs. It only claims that the record shows that they cannot be descended from the birdlike dinosaurs that shared their distinctive structural features. The correct answer is C.
22. City council member: Demand for electricity has been increasing by 1.5 percent a year, and there simply is no more space to build additional power plants to meet future demand increases. We must therefore begin to curtail usage, which is why I propose passing ordinances requiring energy-conservation measures in all city departments. The city council member's proposal assumes which of the following?
A.Existing power plants do not have the capacity to handle all of the projected increase in demand for electricity.
B.No city departments have implemented energy- conservation measures voluntarily.
C.Passing ordinances designed to curtail electricity usage will not have negative economic consequences for the city.
D.Residential consumers are not responsible for the recent increases in demand for electricity.
E.City departments that successfully conserve energy will set a good example for residential and industrial consumers of electricity.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation A city council member proposes energy-conservation measures for all city government departments because there is no room to build new power plants to meet future increases in the demand for electricity. Reasoning What must be true in order for the factors the city council member cites to help justify the proposal? The city council member says electricity usage must be curtailed on account of an increasing demand for electricity and a lack of space for new power plants that could meet future demand increases. In order for this reasoning to help justify the proposal, the cited factors must actually establish a need to curtail electricity usage. A Correct. If current power plants could satisfy the projected increased demand for electricity, then the increasing demand and the lack of room to build new plants would not establish a need to curtail electricity usage. B The proposed ordinances could still be necessary even if one city department had voluntarily implemented energy-conservation measures. C Passing the ordinances could still be necessary even if they would have some negative economic effects. D No matter who is responsible for the recent increases in demand, curtailing the city government's electricity usage could still help to reduce demand. E Ordinances to curtail the city government's energy usage could be economically necessary regardless of whether or not departments that obey the ordinances set a good example. The correct answer is A.
23. Which of the following most logically completes the argument below? Using broad-spectrum weed killers on weeds that are competing with crops for sunlight, water, and nutrients presents a difficulty: how to keep the crop from being killed along with the weeds. For at least some food crops, specially treated seed that produces plants resistant to weed killers is under development. This resistance wears off as the plants mature. Therefore, the special seed treatment will be especially useful for plants that ______.
A.produce their crop over an extended period of time, as summer squash does
B.produce large seeds that are easy to treat individually, as corn and beans do
C.provide, as they approach maturity, shade dense enough to keep weeds from growing
D.are typically grown in large tracts devoted to a single crop
E.are cultivated specifically for the seed they produce rather than for their leaves or roots
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation A difficulty in using broad-spectrum weed killers is keeping them from killing the food crops along with the weeds. Specially treated seed is being developed that will protect certain food crop plants in their earlier stages of growth. Reasoning Which is the best completion for the conclusion? The conclusion is incompletely stated as "Therefore, the special seed treatment will be especially useful for plants that ______." The question is what sorts of plants does the passage suggest the seed treatment would be especially useful for. We have been told that this treatment makes the plants resistant to weed killer, but that this resistance wears off when the plant matures. So the treatment will be most useful with plants that are not harmed by weed killer and that suffer no significant disadvantage when the resistance wears off as the plant matures. Choice (C) is the correct answer choice because it describes a sort of plant that can combat weeds and requires no weed killer once the plant matures. A Given that the seed treatment wears off as the plant matures, it would not be especially useful for plants that produce their crops over an extended period. B We have not been told whether small seeds are more difficult to treat, and so we have no basis to conclude that the special seed treatment would be especially useful for plants that have large seeds that are easy to treat individually. We have also been given no reason to think that it is better to treat seeds individually. C Correct. Plants that, as they approach maturity, produce shade dense enough to keep weeds from growing, would benefit from resistance to weed killer when young and would not need weed killer when they have matured and lost their resistance. D We have been given no reason to think that the seed treatment would be especially useful for plants grown in a large tract devoted to a single crop. For example, why would it be less useful for small tracts with a variety of crops? E A plant harvested for its roots, fruits, or leaves, rather than for its seeds, would derive no less an advantage from resistance to weed killers in earlier stages of growth. The correct answer is C.
24. Previously, Autoco designed all of its cars itself and then contracted with specialized parts suppliers to build parts according to its specifications. Now it plans to include its suppliers in designing the parts they are to build. Since many parts suppliers have more designers with specialized experience than Autoco has, Autoco expects this shift to reduce the overall time and cost of the design of its next new car. Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports Autoco's expectation?
A.When suppliers provide their own designs, Autoco often needs to modify its overall design.
B.In order to provide designs for Autoco, several of the parts suppliers will have to add to their existing staffs of designers.
C.Parts and services provided by outside suppliers account for more than 50 percent of Autoco's total costs.
D.When suppliers built parts according to specifications provided by Autoco, the suppliers competed to win contracts.
E.Most of Autoco's suppliers have on hand a wide range of previously prepared parts designs that can readily be modified for a new car.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation A car manufacturer plans to have its parts suppliers start helping to design the parts they build for the manufacturer. Many parts suppliers have more designers with specialized experience than the manufacturer has. Reasoning What would make it more likely that having the parts suppliers help design the parts will reduce the time and cost of designing the manufacturer's next new car? In order for the change to reduce the time and cost, the parts suppliers involved in designing the next car will probably have to do their portion of the design process faster and cheaper than the manufacturer would have, and the design collaboration process will have to avoid producing substantial new inefficiencies. A The additional need to modify the overall design would probably make the design process slower and more expensive, not faster and cheaper. B The additional need to hire more designers would probably increase design costs, not reduce them. C Although this suggests that the change is likely to substantially affect the design's expense, it does not indicate whether the expense will increase or decrease. D If anything, this competition probably made Autoco's previous design process cheaper. It does not suggest that the new design process, which may involve less competition, will be faster or cheaper than the previous one. E Correct. Modifying the previously prepared parts designs will probably be faster and cheaper than creating new designs from scratch. The correct answer is E.
25. In response to viral infection, the immune systems of mice typically produce antibodies that destroy the virus by binding to proteins on its surface. Mice infected with the herpesvirus generally develop keratitis, a degenerative disease affecting part of the eye. Since proteins on the surface of cells in this part of the eye closely resemble those on the herpesvirus surface, scientists hypothesize that these cases of keratitis are caused by antibodies to the herpesvirus. Which of the following, if true, most helps to support the scientists' reasoning?
A.Other types of virus have surface proteins that closely resemble proteins found in various organs of mice.
B.Mice that are infected with the herpesvirus but do not develop keratitis produce as many antibodies as infected mice that do develop keratitis.
C.Mice infected with a new strain of the herpesvirus that has different surface proteins did not develop keratitis.
D.Mice that have never been infected with the herpesvirus can sometimes develop keratitis.
E.There are mice that are unable to form antibodies in response to herpes infections, and these mice contract herpes at roughly the same rate as other mice.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Mice infected with the herpesvirus tend to develop keratitis, an eye disease. The surface of the eye ceils have proteins that resemble those on the herpesvirus surface. Based on this finding, scientists have hypothesized that keratitis develops in mice because antibodies that attack herpesvirus surface proteins can also attack eyes. Reasoning What other information, if correct, would provide the strongest support for the scientists' hypothesis? The clue that led the scientists to form their hypothesis was the close resemblance of the proteins on the mouse eye surface to those on the herpesvirus surface. The resemblance could cause antibodies to bind to both types of proteins, in one case eliminating the herpesvirus and in the other case causing keratitis. A Even if this is correct, we lack information as to whether the antibodies to those other types of virus can damage the organs that display the closely resembling proteins. If such a damage process were confirmed, it could count as evidence—even if not sufficient—to confirm the scientists' hypothesis. B If anything, this would, absent further information, raise doubts about the correctness of the scientists' proposed explanation. C Correct. This provides strong confirmation of the scientists' hypothesis. The proteins on the new strain of the herpesvirus no longer sufficiently resemble the proteins on the eye surface to cause the antibodies to attack those proteins and cause keratitis. D For all we know, keratitis may have multiple independent causes and may sometimes be caused by processes other than the protein misidentification hypothesized by the scientists. This information neither confirms nor refutes the scientists' hypothesis. E The rates at which mice contract herpes is not discussed. We lack any information as to whether mice that lack antibodies to the herpesvirus sometimes contract keratitis along with herpes infection. The correct answer is C.
26. Last year a record number of new manufacturing jobs were created. Will this year bring another record? Well, any new manufacturing job is created either within an existing company or by the start-up of a new company. Within existing firms, new jobs have been created this year at well below last year's record pace. At the same time, there is considerable evidence that the number of new companies starting up this year will be no higher than it was last year and there is no reason to think that the new companies starting up this year will create more jobs per company than did last year's start-ups. So clearly, the number of new jobs created this year will fall short of last year's record. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
A.The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second is a claim that the argument challenges.
B.The first is a generalization that the argument seeks to establish; the second is a conclusion that the argument draws in order to support that generalization.
C.The first is a generalization that the argument seeks to establish; the second is a judgment that has been advanced in order to challenge that generalization.
D.The first is presented as an obvious truth on which the argument is based; the second is a claim that has been advanced in support of a position that the argument opposes.
E.The first is presented as an obvious truth on which the argument is based; the second is a judgment advanced in support of the main conclusion of the argument.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Manufacturing jobs are created either within existing companies or in start-ups. Manufacturing jobs are being created at a much slower rate this year than last year. It seems likely that the number of new start-ups will not exceed last year's number and that the average number of manufacturing jobs per start-up will not exceed last year's number. So fewer manufacturing jobs are likely to be created this year than last year. Reasoning What function is served by the statement that any new manufacturing job is created either within an existing company or by the start-up of a new company? What function is served by the statement that there is no reason to think that the new companies starting up this year will create more jobs per company than did last year's start-ups? The first statement makes explicit a general background assumption that there are just two ways in which manufacturing jobs are created. This assumption is used, along with other information, to support the argument's main conclusion, i.e., the prediction about job creation this year. The second statement gives a premise meant to help support the prediction about this year's manufacturing-job creation. A The first is a general statement making explicit an assumption on which the argument's reasoning depends, but the second is a statement affirmed as part of the argument and does not express a claim that the argument challenges. B The first is a generalization that is simply stated, without any support being offered. The second is not a conclusion and is not offered in support of the first. C The second is not presented as a challenge to the generalization that is given in the first statement. The argument does not seek to establish the first statement, but merely asserts it. D The second is information offered in support of the argument's main conclusion rather than a statement offered in support of a position opposed by the argument. E Correct. The first, stating a truism, is merely asserted and requires no support in the argument, for which it provides a foundation; the second is a piece of information meant to support the prediction that is the argument's main conclusion. The correct answer is E.
27. Last year a record number of new manufacturing jobs were created. Will this year bring another record? Well, any new manufacturing job is created either within an existing company or by the start-up of a new company. Within existing firms, new jobs have been created this year at well below last year's record pace. At the same time, there is considerable evidence that the number of new companies starting up will be no higher this year than it was last year and there is no reason to think that the new companies starting up this year will create more jobs per company than did last year's start-ups. So clearly, the number of new jobs created this year will fall short of last year's record. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
A.The first is presented as an obvious truth on which the argument is based; the second is the main conclusion of the argument.
B.The first is presented as an obvious truth on which the argument is based; the second is a conclusion drawn in order to support the main conclusion of the argument.
C.The first and the second each provide evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument.
D.The first is a generalization that the argument seeks to establish; the second is the main conclusion of the argument.
E.The first is a generalization that the argument seeks to establish; the second is a conclusion that has been drawn in order to challenge that generalization.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Manufacturing jobs are created either within existing companies or in start-ups. Manufacturing jobs are being created at a much slower rate this year than last year. It seems likely that the number of new start-ups will not exceed last year's number and that the average number of new manufacturing jobs per start-up will not exceed last year's number. So fewer manufacturing jobs are likely to be created this year than last year. Reasoning What function is served by the statement that any new manufacturing job is created either within an existing company or by the start-up of a new company? What function is served by the statement that the number of new jobs created this year will fall short of last year's record number? The first statement makes explicit a general background assumption that manufacturing jobs are created in just two ways. This assumption is used, along with other information, to support the argument's main conclusion. The second statement gives the argument's main conclusion, a prediction about how this year's manufacturing-job creation will compare with last year's. A Correct. The first statement states a truism that is meant to provide support for the second statement; the second statement is the argument's main conclusion. B The second statement is the argument's main conclusion, not an intermediate conclusion used to support the argument's main conclusion. C The second statement is the main conclusion of the argument, not a statement used as support for the main conclusion. D The argument merely asserts, and does not "seek to establish," the first statement. The first statement is a truism that does not need to be supported with evidence. E The second statement is the argument's main conclusion and is not meant to present a challenge to the first statement. The first statement serves to provide partial support for the argument's main conclusion. The correct answer is A.
28. In Stenland, many workers have been complaining that they cannot survive on minimum wage, the lowest wage an employer is permitted to pay. The government is proposing to raise the minimum wage. Many employers who pay their workers the current minimum wage argue that if it is raised, unemployment will increase because they will no longer be able to afford to employ as many workers. Which of the following, if true in Stenland, most strongly supports the claim that raising the minimum wage there will not have the effects that the employers predict?
A.For any position with wages below a living wage, the difficulty of finding and retaining employees adds as much to employment costs as would raising wages.
B.Raising the minimum wage does not also increase the amount employers have to contribute in employee benefits.
C.When inflation is taken into account, the proposed new minimum wage is not as high as the current one was when it was introduced.
D.Many employees currently being paid wages at the level of the proposed new minimum wage will demand significant wage increases.
E.Many employers who pay some workers only the minimum wage also pay other workers wages that are much higher than the minimum.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Stenland's government proposes to raise the minimum wage because many workers have complained they cannot survive on it. But many employers claim that raising the minimum wage will increase unemployment. Reasoning What evidence would most strongly suggest that raising the minimum wage will not increase unemployment? The employers with minimum-wage workers implicitly reason that because raising the minimum wage will increase the wages they have to pay each worker, it will reduce the number of workers they can afford to employ, and thus will increase unemployment. Evidence that the increased wage would not actually increase the employers' expenses per employee would cast doubt on their prediction, as would evidence that reducing the number of minimum-wage workers would not increase the nation's overall unemployment rate. A Correct. This suggests that raising the minimum wage would make it easier for employers to find and retain minimum-wage employees, and that the savings would fully offset the cost of paying the higher wages. If there were such offsetting savings, the employers should still be able to afford to employ as many workers as they currently do. B Even if raising the minimum wage does not increase employers' costs for employee benefits, paying the higher wage might still in itself substantially increase employers' overall costs per employee. C For all we know, the current minimum wage might have substantially increased unemployment when it was introduced. D These additional demands would probably raise employers' overall costs per employee, making it more likely that increasing the minimum wage would increase overall unemployment. E Even if some workers receive more than the minimum wage, raising that wage could still raise employers' expenses for employing low-wage workers, making it too expensive for the employers to employ as many workers overall. The correct answer is A.
29. Biologists with a predilection for theory have tried—and largely failed—to define what it is that makes something a living thing. Organisms take in energy-providing materials and excrete waste products, but so do automobiles. Living things replicate and take part in evolution, but so do some computer programs. We must be open to the possibility that there are living things on other planets. Therefore, we will not be successful in defining what it is that makes something a living thing merely by examining living things on Earth—the only ones we know. Trying to do so is analogous to trying to specify ______. Which of the following most logically completes the passage?
A.the laws of physics by using pure mathematics
B.what a fish is by listing its chemical components
C.what an animal is by examining a plant
D.what a machine is by examining a sketch of it
E.what a mammal is by examining a zebra
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Some biologists have tried, unsuccessfully, to find a theoretically defensible account of what it means for something to be a riving thing. Some of the suggested definitions are too broad, because they include things that we would not regard as riving. To find life on other planets, we must not narrow our conception of life by basing it simply on the kinds of life encountered on Earth. Reasoning Which of the five choices would be the logically most appropriate completion of the argument? The argument points out that life-forms elsewhere in the universe may be very different from any of the life-forms on Earth. Both life-forms on Earth and life-forms discovered elsewhere would all qualify as members of a very large class, the class of all rife-forms. Taking rife-forms on Earth, a mere subset of the class of all life-forms, as representative of all life-forms would be a logical mistake and would not lead to success in defining what it means for something to be a living thing. A This would not involve a logical mistake like the one already identified. B This would not involve a logical mistake closely resembling the one already identified. C Plants are not a subclass of the class of animals, so this does not involve the logical mistake of taking a subclass as representative of a larger class. D This does not involve a logical mistake closely resembling the one already discussed. E Correct. This involves the logical mistake of taking the class of zebras, a subclass of the class of mammals, as representative of the class of mammals. Logically, it resembles taking the class of life-forms on Earth as representative of the class of all life-forms. The correct answer is E.
30. When trying to identify new technologies that promise to transform the marketplace, market researchers survey the managers of those companies that are developing new technologies. Such managers have an enormous stake in succeeding, so they invariably overstate the potential of their new technologies. Surprisingly, however, market researchers typically do not survey a new technology's potential buyers, even though it is the buyers—not the producers—who will ultimately determine a technology's commercial success. Which of the following, if true, best accounts for the typical survey practices among market researchers?
A.If a new technology succeeds, the commercial benefits accrue largely to the producers, not to the buyers, of that technology.
B.People who promote the virtues of a new technology typically fail to consider that the old technology that is currently in use continues to be improved, often substantially.
C.Investors are unlikely to invest substantial amounts of capital in a company whose own managers are skeptical about the commercial prospects of a new technology they are developing.
D.The potential buyers for not-yet-available technologies can seldom be reliably identified.
E.The developers of a new technology are generally no better positioned than its potential buyers to gauge how rapidly the new technology can be efficiently mass-produced.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Market researchers seeking to identify new technologies that have the potential to transform the marketplace survey managers of companies developing new technologies, but typically not the potential buyers of new technologies, even though managers tend to overstate the potential of their new technologies and it is the buyers who determine the products' commercial success. Reasoning What best explains why it is managers, not buyers, that the market researchers survey? Why, despite the information in the passage, are managers of technology companies surveyed while potential buyers are typically not? A partial explanation would be that it is difficult to reliably determine who the potential buyers of new technologies will be. If market researchers cannot identify who the potential buyers of as-yet unavailable technologies will be, that explains why they are not typically surveyed—and why the next best alternative may be to survey managers. A This answer choice tells us who would benefit from commercial success of new technologies. But it says nothing about whose opinion would be most valuable in predicting the commercial success of new technologies. B At most, this could help explain why managers overstate the potential of their new technologies. But it does not explain the motives of market researchers in relying on the managers' rather than buyers' opinions about new technologies. C Given that managers of technology companies will want to attract investors, this helps to explain why the managers would tend to overstate the potential of their new technologies. But it does not help to explain the survey practices. D Correct. This accounts for why potential buyers of new technologies are not typically sought out in surveys by market researchers: It is difficult to determine in advance who they are. E This, like answer choice (C), tends to make the practices of market researchers more difficult rather than easier to understand. If developers of new technologies are no better at gauging how rapidly a new technology can be mass-produced (a factor affecting commercial success), then all the more reason to survey potential buyers rather than the managers. The correct answer is D.
31. Sammy: For my arthritis, I am going to try my aunt's diet: large amounts of wheat germ and garlic. She was able to move more easily right after she started that diet. Pat: When my brother began that diet, his arthritis got worse. But he has been doing much better since he stopped eating vegetables in the nightshade family, such as tomatoes and peppers. Which of the following, if true, would provide a basis for explaining the fact that Sammy's aunt and Pat's brother had contrasting experiences with the same diet?
A.A change in diet, regardless of the nature of the change, frequently brings temporary relief from arthritis symptoms.
B.The compounds in garlic that can lessen the symptoms of arthritis are also present in tomatoes and peppers.
C.Arthritis is a chronic condition whose symptoms improve and worsen from time to time without regard to diet.
D.In general, men are more likely to have their arthritis symptoms alleviated by avoiding vegetables in the nightshade family than are women.
E.People who are closely related are more likely to experience the same result from adopting a particular diet than are people who are unrelated.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation Sammy's aunt's arthritis apparently improved after she consumed large amounts of wheat germ and garlic. Pat's brother's arthritis deteriorated after he followed the same diet. Since he stopped eating vegetables in the nightshade family, such as tomatoes and peppers, his arthritis has improved. Reasoning What could account for the fact that Sammy's aunt's arthritis improved and Pat's brother's arthritis got worse after they both followed the wheat germ and garlic diet? The fact that a person has a health improvement following a diet is, by itself, very weak evidence for the claim that the diet caused the improvement. More generally, the fact that one event follows another is seldom, by itself, evidence that the earlier event caused the later. This applies to both the experience of Sammy's aunt and that of Pat's brother with the wheat germ and garlic diet. A In theory, this could be somewhat relevant to Sammy's aunt's experience but not to Pat's brother's experience. It is, however, insufficient to explain either. B Even if this is true, it might be the case that a large quantity of the compounds in question must be consumed in concentrated form to benefit arthritis. No evidence is given to indicate whether this is so. Regardless, the puzzle as to why the wheat germ and garlic diet was followed by arthritis improvement in one case and not in the other remains. C Correct. If we know there are typically fluctuations in the severity of arthritis symptoms and these can occur independent of diet, then the divergent experiences of the two people can be attributed to such fluctuations—even if it is conceded that some diets can affect arthritis symptoms in some manner. The wheat germ and garlic diet may, or may not, be such a diet. D This could throw light on Pat's brother's experience but not on Sammy's aunt's experience. E If this is correct, it is still far too general to provide a basis for explaining why the experiences of the two people were different. Does it apply to arthritis? We're not told. Nor are we told that it applies to the wheat germ and garlic diet. Is Pat's brother closely related to Sammy's aunt? We don't know. The correct answer is C.
32. Infotek, a computer manufacturer in Katrovia, has just introduced a new personal computer model that sells for significantly less than any other model. Market research shows, however, that very few Katrovian households without personal computers would buy a computer, regardless of its price. Therefore, introducing the new model is unlikely to increase the number of computers in Katrovian homes. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
A.Infotek achieved the lower price of the new model by using components of lower quality than those used by other manufacturers.
B.The main reason cited by consumers in Katrovia for replacing a personal computer is the desire to have an improved model.
C.Katrovians in households that already have computers are unlikely to purchase the new Infotek model as an additional computer for home use.
D.The price of other personal computers in Katrovia is unlikely to drop below the price of Infotek's new model in the near future.
E.Most personal computers purchased in Katrovia are intended for home use.
A B C D E
C
[解析] Argument Construction Situation In Katrovia, a new personal computer model costs less than any other model. But market research shows that very few Katrovian households without personal computers would buy even cheap ones. Reasoning What must be true in order for the stated facts to support the conclusion that introducing the new computer model is unlikely to increase the overall number of computers in Katrovian homes? The market research supports the conclusion that no new computer model is likely to significantly increase the number of computers in Katrovian homes that currently lack computers. But the overall number of computers in Katrovian homes will still increase if Katrovian homes that already have computers buy additional computers while keeping their existing ones. So the argument has to assume that the new computer model will not increase the number of additional computers purchased for Katrovian homes that already have computers. A Even iflnfotek used high-quality components in the new computer model, Katrovians might still refuse to buy it. B Replacing a personal computer does not change the overall number of personal computers in homes, so Katrovians' motives for replacing their computers are irrelevant to the argument. C Correct. As explained above, unless computers of the new model are purchased as additional computers for Katrovian homes that already have computers, the new model's introduction is unlikely to increase the overall number of computers in Katrovian homes. D The assumption that other personal computer prices would stay relatively high does not help establish the link between its premises and its conclusion. If answer choice D were false, the argument would be no weaker than it is without any consideration of other computers' potential prices. E If most personal computers purchased in Katrovia were not intended for home use, then the new model's introduction would be even less likely to increase the number of personal computers in Katrovian homes. So the argument does not depend on assuming that most of the computers purchased are for home use. The correct answer is C.
33. Fast-food restaurants make up 45 percent of all restaurants in Canatria. Customers at these restaurants tend to be young; in fact, studies have shown that the older people get, the less likely they are to eat in fast-food restaurants. Since the average age of the Canatrian population is gradually rising and will continue to do so, the number of fast-food restaurants is likely to decrease. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
A.Fast-food restaurants in Canatria are getting bigger, so each one can serve more customers.
B.Some older people eat at fast-food restaurants more frequently than the average young person.
C.Many people who rarely eat in fast-food restaurants nevertheless eat regularly in restaurants.
D.The overall population of Canatria is growing steadily.
E.As the population of Canatria gets older, more people are eating at home.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation In Canatria, the older people get, the less likely they are to eat in fast-food restaurants. The average age of Canatrians is increasing. Reasoning What evidence would most weaken the support provided by the cited facts for the prediction that the number of fast-food restaurants in Canatria is likely to decrease? The argument implicitly reasons that since studies have shown that Canatrians tend to eat in fast-food restaurants less as they get older, and since Canatrians are getting older on average, the proportion of Canatrians eating in fast-food restaurants will decline. The argument assumes that this means the overall number of fast-food restaurant customers will decline and that demand will decrease enough to reduce the number of fast-food restaurants that can sustain profitability. Consequently, fewer new fast-food restaurants will open or more old ones will close, or both. Thus, the number of fast-food restaurants in Canatria will fall. Any evidence casting doubt on any inference in this chain of implicit reasoning will weaken the argument. A This strengthens the argument by providing additional evidence that the total number of fast-food restaurants will decrease. If the average number of customers per fast-food restaurant is increasing, then fewer fast-food restaurants will be needed to serve the same—or a lesser—number of customers. B Even if a few individuals do not follow the general trends described, those trends could still reduce the overall demand for and number of fast-food restaurants. C The argument is only about fast-food restaurants, not restaurants of other types. D Correct. This suggests that even if the proportion of Canatrians eating at fast-food restaurants declines, the total number doing so may not decline. Thus, the total demand for and profitability of fast-food restaurants may not decline either, so the total number of fast-food restaurants in Canatria may not decrease. E If anything, this strengthens the argument by pointing out an additional trend likely to reduce the demand for, and thus the number of, fast-food restaurants in Canatria. The correct answer is D.
34. Last year a chain of fast-food restaurants, whose menu had always centered on hamburgers, added its first vegetarian sandwich, much lower in fat than the chain's other offerings. Despite heavy marketing, the new sandwich accounts for a very small proportion of the chain's sales. The sandwich's sales would have to quadruple to cover the costs associated with including it on the menu. Since such an increase is unlikely, the chain would be more profitable if it dropped the sandwich. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
A.Although many of the chain's customers have never tried the vegetarian sandwich, in a market research survey most of those who had tried it reported that they were very satisfied with it.
B.Many of the people who eat at the chain's restaurants also eat at the restaurants of competing chains and report no strong preference among the competitors.
C.Among fast-food chains in general, there has been little or no growth in hamburger sales over the past several years as the range of competing offerings at other restaurants has grown.
D.When even one member of a group of diners is a vegetarian or has a preference for low-fat food, the group tends to avoid restaurants that lack vegetarian or low-fat menu options.
E.An attempt by the chain to introduce a lower-fat hamburger failed several years ago, since it attracted few new customers and most of the chain's regular customers greatly preferred the taste of the regular hamburgers.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Last year a fast-food restaurant chain specializing in hamburgers started offering a low-fat vegetarian sandwich and marketed it heavily. The new sandwich's sales are far too low to cover the costs associated with including it on the menu. Reasoning What evidence would most weaken the support provided by the cited facts for the prediction that it would be more profitable for the chain to drop the sandwich? The implicit argument is that since the new sandwich's sales are too low to cover the costs associated with including it on the menu, offering the sandwich diminishes the chain's profitability and will continue to do so if the sandwich continues to be offered. This reasoning assumes that the sandwich provides the chain no substantial indirect financial benefits except through its direct sales. It also assumes that the sandwich's sales will not increase sufficiently to make the sandwich a viable product. Any evidence casting doubt on either of these assumptions will weaken the argument. A This gives information only about the respondents to the survey who had tried the sandwich (possibly very few), who were probably already more open to liking a vegetarian sandwich than any of the chain's other customers. So their responses are probably unrepresentative of the chain's customers in general and do not suggest that the sandwich has enough market potential. B Although the issue of competition with other restaurants is not raised in the information provided, this new information, if anything, strengthens the argument, by suggesting that the introduction of the new sandwich has not significantly enhanced customer preference for eating at the restaurants that offer the new sandwich. C This suggests that the cause of stagnation in fast-food restaurants' hamburger sales has been competition from non-fast-food restaurants, but not that the non-fast-food restaurants competed by offering vegetarian options. D Correct. This suggests that even if the sandwich's sales are low, it may indirectly increase the chain's overall profits by encouraging large groups to eat at the chain. E This strengthens the argument by suggesting that the chain's customers are generally not interested in low-fat menu options such as the new sandwich. The correct answer is D.
35. Transportation expenses accounted for a large portion of the total dollar amount spent on trips for pleasure by residents of the United States in 1997, and about half of the total dollar amount spent on transportation was for airfare. However, the large majority of United States residents who took trips for pleasure in 1997 did not travel by airplane but used other means of transportation. If the statements above are true, which of the following must also be true about United States residents who took trips for pleasure in 1997?
A.Most of those who traveled by airplane did so because the airfare to their destination was lower than the cost of other available means of transportation.
B.Most of those who traveled by airplane did so because other means of transportation to their destination were unavailable.
C.Per mile traveled, those who traveled by airplane tended to spend more on transportation to their destination than did those who used other means of transportation.
D.Overall, people who did not travel by airplane had lower average transportation expenses than people who did.
E.Those who traveled by airplane spent about as much, on average, on other means of transportation as they did on airfare.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation In 1997, about half of total transportation spending by U.S. residents taking trips for pleasure was for airfare. But the large majority of U.S. residents who took trips for pleasure in 1997 did not travel by airplane. Reasoning What can be deduced from the stated facts? The information provided indicates that among U.S. residents who took trips for pleasure in 1997, those who traveled by airplane were a small minority. Yet this small minority's spending for airfare accounted for half of all transportation spending among residents taking trips for pleasure. It follows that on average, those who traveled by airplane must have spent far more per person on transportation than those who did not travel by airplane. A This does not follow logically from the information given. Most of those who traveled by airplane may have done so even if flying was more expensive than other modes of transportation—for example, because flying was faster or more comfortable. B This does not follow from the information given. Most of those who traveled by airplane may have done so even if many other modes of transportation were available—the other modes may all have been less desirable. C This does not follow from the information given. Those who traveled by airplane may have traveled much farther on average than those who used other means of transportation, so their transportation spending per mile traveled need not have been greater. D Correct. As explained above, those who traveled by airplane must have spent more per person on transportation than those who did not travel by airplane, on average. In other words, those who did not travel by airplane must have had lower average transportation expenses than those who did. E This does not follow from the information given. Although half the total dollar spending on transportation was for airfare, much of the transportation spending that was not for airfare was by the large majority of U.S. residents who did not travel by airplane. The correct answer is D.
36. Voters commonly condemn politicians for being insincere, but politicians often must disguise their true feelings when they make public statements. If they expressed their honest views—about, say, their party's policies—then achieving politically necessary compromises would be much more difficult. Clearly, the very insincerity that people decry shows that our government is functioning well. Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines this reasoning?
A.Achieving political compromises is not all that is necessary for the proper functioning of a government.
B.Some political compromises are not in the best long-term interest of the government.
C.Voters often judge politicians by criteria other than the sincerity with which they express their views.
D.A political party's policies could turn out to be detrimental to the functioning of a government.
E.Some of the public statements made by politicians about their party's policies could in fact be sincere.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Politicians must often make insincere public statements because expressing their true feelings would make it harder for them to achieve politically necessary compromises. Reasoning What would suggest that the argument's premises do not establish that politicians' insincerity shows our government is functioning well? The implicit reasoning is that insincerity helps politicians achieve politically necessary compromises, and these compromises help our government to function well, so insincerity must show that our government is functioning well. Evidence that these necessary compromises do not ensure that our government functions well would undermine the argument's reasoning, as would evidence that politicians' insincerity has other substantial effects that hinder the government's functioning. A Correct. If governments may function poorly even when insincerity allows necessary political compromises to be made, then the argument's premises do not establish that politicians' insincerity shows our government is functioning well. B The argument does not require that all political compromises help government to function well, only that politically necessary compromises do. C Even if voters often judge politicians by criteria other than their sincerity, they may also often decry politicians' insincerity, not realizing or caring that such insincerity helps the government function well. D Even if a political party's policies impair the government's functioning, politically necessary compromises by politicians in that party could improve the government's functioning. E Even if politicians sometimes speak sincerely about their party's policies, their general willingness to be insincere as needed to achieve politically necessary compromises could be a sign that the government is functioning well. The correct answer is A.
37. To reduce waste of raw materials, the government of Sperland is considering requiring household appliances to be broken down for salvage when discarded. To cover the cost of salvage, the government is planning to charge a fee, which would be imposed when the appliance is first sold. Imposing the fee at the time of salvage would reduce waste more effectively, however, because consumers tend to keep old appliances longer if they are faced with a fee for discarding them. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
A.Increasing the cost of disposing of an appliance properly increases the incentive to dispose of it improperly.
B.The fee provides manufacturers with no incentive to produce appliances that are more durable.
C.For people who have bought new appliances recently, the salvage fee would not need to be paid for a number of years.
D.People who sell their used, working appliances to others would not need to pay the salvage fee.
E.Many nonfunctioning appliances that are currently discarded could be repaired at relatively little expense.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Evaluation of a Plan Situation A government is considering requiring household appliances to be broken down for salvage when discarded. To cover the salvage costs, the government plans to charge a fee on appliance sales. Reasoning What would suggest that charging the fee at the time of salvage would less effectively reduce waste than charging the fee at the time of sale would? The argument is that charging the fee at the time of salvage would reduce waste of raw materials because it would encourage consumers to keep their appliances longer before salvaging them. This argument could be weakened by pointing out other factors that might increase waste if the fee is charged at the time of salvage or reduce waste if the fee is charged at the time of sale. A Correct. This suggests that charging the fee at the time of salvage rather than the time of sale would encourage consumers to discard their appliances illegally, thereby increasing waste of raw materials by reducing the proportion of discarded appliances that are salvaged. B This factor would remain the same regardless of whether the fee was charged at the time of sale or the time of salvage. C This might be a reason for consumers to prefer the fee be charged at the time of salvage rather than the time of sale, but it does not suggest that charging the fee at the time of salvage would reduce waste less effectively. D This provides an additional reason to expect that charging the fee at the time of salvage would help reduce waste, so it strengthens rather than weakens the argument. E This would give consumers an additional reason to keep using their old appliances and postpone paying a fee at the time of salvage, so it strengthens rather than weakens the argument. The correct answer is A.
38. When there is less rainfall than normal, the water level of Australian rivers falls and the rivers flow more slowly. Because algae whose habitat is river water grow best in slow-moving water, the amount of algae per unit of water generally increases when there has been little rain. By contrast, however, following a period of extreme drought, algae levels are low even in very slow-moving river water. Which of the following, if true, does most to explain the contrast described above?
A.During periods of extreme drought, the populations of some of the species that feed on algae tend to fall.
B.The more slowly water moves, the more conducive its temperature is to the growth of algae.
C.When algae populations reach very high levels, conditions within the river can become toxic for some of the other species that normally live there.
D.Australian rivers dry up completely for short intervals in periods of extreme drought.
E.Except during periods of extreme drought, algae levels tend to be higher in rivers in which the flow has been controlled by damming than in rivers that flow freely.
A B C D E
D
[解析] Argument Construction Situation When Australian rivers flow slowly due to little rain, algae populations in those rivers increase. But after periods of extreme drought, algae levels are low even in water moving at speeds that would normally show population increases. Reasoning What would explain the contrast between algae levels in slow-moving water resulting from little rain and slow-moving water after a drought? There must be some difference between what happens during periods in which there is simply less rainfall than normal and periods in which there is extreme drought, a difference that affects the algae population. A This indicates one of the consequences of drought, and slightly suggests that this might be due to a lower algae level. But it does nothing to explain why algae levels might be lower after a drought. B This could explain why some rivers that are slow-moving and have little water might have a high algae level—but not why the algae level is low in such rivers after a period of drought. C This explains why levels of other species might be low when algae populations are high, not why algae populations are high when there is little rain, but low following a period of extreme drought. D Correct. This statement properly identifies something that helps explain the contrast. According to the information given, the habitat of the algae under discussion is river water. If the river dries up, the algae will probably not survive. Then after the drought, algae population levels would likely take a while to rise again. E This emphasizes that there is a contrast between what happens to algae during periods of extreme drought and what happens to them at other times, but it does not help explain that contrast. The correct answer is D.
39. Increased use of incineration is sometimes advocated as a safe way to dispose of chemical waste. But opponents of incineration point to the 40 incidents involving unexpected releases of dangerous chemical agents that were reported just last year at two existing incinerators commissioned to destroy a quantity of chemical waste material. Since designs for proposed new incinerators include no additional means of preventing such releases, leaks will only become more prevalent if use of incineration increases. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
A.At the two incinerators at which leaks were reported, staff had had only cursory training on the proper procedures for incinerating chemical waste.
B.Other means of disposing of chemical waste, such as chemical neutralization processes, have not been proven safer than incineration.
C.The capacity of existing incinerators is sufficient to allow for increased incineration of chemical waste without any need for new incinerators.
D.The frequency of reports of unexpected releases of chemical agents at newly built incinerators is about the same as the frequency at older incinerators.
E.In only three of the reported incidents of unexpected chemical leaks did the releases extend outside the property on which the incinerators were located.
A B C D E
A
[解析] Argument Evaluation Situation Last year, at two chemical waste incinerators, there were forty reported incidents involving unexpected releases of dangerous chemicals. Designs for proposed new incinerators include no additional safeguards against such releases. Therefore, increased use of incineration will likely make such releases more prevalent. Reasoning What would undermine the support provided for the conclusion that leaks will become more prevalent if more chemical waste is disposed of through incineration ? The argument draws a general conclusion about chemical waste incineration from evidence about only two particular incinerators. This reasoning would be undermined by any evidence that the leaks at those two incinerators were the result of something other than insufficient safeguards against such releases. A Correct. If the staff training at the two incinerators was cursory, then the leaks may have been the results of staff not knowing how to use safeguards with which the incinerators are equipped that, if properly used, would have prevented the release of dangerous chemicals. Therefore, if staff at newer incinerators will be better trained, leaks might not become more prevalent even if chemical waste incineration becomes more common. B Other chemical waste disposal methods may be safer than incineration even if no one has proven so; and even if they're not safer overall, they may involve fewer leaks. C Continuing to use existing incinerators might well produce just as many leaks as switching to new incinerators would. D This suggests that new incinerators produce as many leaks as older incinerators do, a finding that provides additional evidence that increased incineration even with proposed new incinerators would lead to more leaks. E The argument is not about how far the releases from leaks extend, only about how many of them are likely to occur. The correct answer is A.
40. Public health expert: Increasing the urgency of a public health message may be counterproductive. In addition to irritating the majority who already behave responsibly, it may undermine all government pronouncements on health by convincing people that such messages are overly cautious. And there is no reason to believe that those who ignore measured voices will listen to shouting. The two sections in boldface play which of the following roles in the public health expert's argument?
A.The first is a conclusion for which support is provided, but is not the argument's main conclusion; the second is an unsupported premise supporting the argument's main conclusion.
B.The first is a premise supporting the only explicit conclusion; so is the second.
C.The first is the argument's main conclusion; the second supports that conclusion and is itself a conclusion for which support is provided.
D.The first is a premise supporting the argument's only conclusion; the second is that conclusion.
E.The first is the argument's only explicit conclusion; the second is a premise supporting that conclusion.
A B C D E
E
[解析] Argument Construction Situation A public health expert argues against increasing the urgency of public health messages by pointing out negative effects that may arise from such an increase, as well as by questioning its efficacy. Reasoning What roles are played in the argument by the two claims in boldface? The first claim in boldface states that increasing the urgency of public health messages may be counterproductive. After making this claim, the public health expert mentions two specific reasons this could be so: it could irritate people who already behave responsibly, and it could convince people that all public health messages are too cautious. (The latter reason in the second claim in boldface). The phrase [i]n addition to indicates that neither claim in the second sentence is intended to support or explain the other. However, since each claim in the second sentence gives a reason to believe the claim in the first sentence, each independently supports the first sentence as a conclusion. The word [a]nd beginning the third sentence reveals that its intended role in the argument is the same as that of the two claims in the second sentence. A Everything stated after the first sentence is intended to help support it, so the first sentence is the argument's main conclusion. B Everything stated after the first sentence is intended to help support it, so the first sentence is a conclusion, not a premise. C Each of the three claims in the second and third sentences is presented as an independent reason to accept the general claim in the first sentence. Therefore, nothing in the passage is intended to support the second statement in boldface as a conclusion. D Everything stated after the first sentence is intended to help support it, so the first sentence is a conclusion, not a premise. E Correct. Each of the three claims in the second and third sentences is presented as an independent reason to accept the general claim in the first sentence. Thus, each of those claims is a premise supporting the claim in the first sentence as the argument's only conclusion. The correct answer is E.