1. Vocabulary is the most ______ element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content.
A.unbalanced
B.unstable
C.unhinged
D.undoubted
A B C D
B
[解析] 词的形式和内容总是处于变化之中,是语言中最不稳定的因素。答案为B。
2. Shakespeare is difficult to understand than contemporary writings because many of his words were used in different ______ from what they have now in dictionaries.
3. In Shakespeare's well-known Hamlet, rival means "______" and jump means "just".
A.janitor
B.partner
C.collector
D.observer
A B C D
B
[解析] 在莎士比亚的名著《哈姆雷特》中,rival作partner(同伴)讲。答案为B。
4. Among the types of word-meaning changes, ______ and narrowing are the most common by far.
A.degradation
B.transfer
C.elevation
D.extension
A B C D
D
[解析] Of these word-meaning changes, extension and narrowing are by far the most common. 在词义变化类型中,词义的扩大和词义的缩小是最为常见的。答案为D。
5. Extension of meaning are known as ______.
A.elevation
B.generalization
C.transfer
D.degradation
A B C D
B
[解析] Extension of meaning is also known as generalization. 词义的扩大也称普遍化。答案为B。
6. Extension refers to the ______ of meaning which some words undergo.
A.widening
B.narrowing
C.degrading
D.specializing
A B C D
A
[解析] Extension of meaning, also known as generalization, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.词义的扩大也称普遍化,是指词的意义的扩展。答案为A。
7. Loud colours belongs to ______.
A.transfer of sensations
B.transfer between abstract and concrete meanings
C.transfer from objective to subjective
D.transfer from subjective to objective
A B C D
A
[解析] In addition, there is transfer of sensations, for example, clear-sounding (from sight to hearing), loud colours(from hearing to sight). 此外还有一种是感觉的转移,如clear-hearing(从视觉到听觉的转移),loud colour(从听觉到视觉的转移)。答案为A。
8. The original meaning of barn is ______.
A.a place for storing only barley
B.a storeroom
C.a restroom
D.a bathroom
A B C D
A
[解析] Barn was once "a place for storing only barley", but now has extended to mean a "storeroom". barn原义为“收藏大麦的仓库”,现在词义扩大为“仓库”。答案为A。
9. The original meaning of manuscript is ______.
A.any author's writing
B.handwriting
C.any author's works
D.a piece of paper
A B C D
B
[解析] The word manuscript, which now means "any author's writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word-processor." but its original meaning was "handwriting" only. manuscript现义为“手稿”,不论作者是手写还是打印,或者是用文字处理机书写,而其原义为“手迹”。答案为B。
10. The meaning of picture changed by the mode of ______.
A.extension
B.narrowing
C.degradation
D.elevation
A B C D
A
[解析] The word picture, which originally denoted mere "painting", but now has come to include "drawings" and even "photographs". picture一词原义为“绘画”,现义为各种画,甚至连照片也包括在内,由此可见是词义扩大了。答案为A。
11. The four major modes of semantic change are ______.
A.extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation
B.extension, generalization, elevation and degradation
C.extension, narrowing, specialization and degradation
D.extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation
A B C D
A
[解析] Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation and transfer.词义变化有词义的扩大、缩小、升格和转移。答案为A。
12. Extension can be illustrated by the following example: ______.
13. A legal term "alibi" signifying "plea that the accused is not at the place when the crime is committed " now means "excuse". This change of word-meaning is called ______.
A.transfer
B.narrowing
C.extension
D.degradation
A B C D
C
[解析] Extension of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which as the term suggests are confined to specialized use. 许多意义有专指的技术术语中也有词义扩大的现象。比如说,alibi原义为“不在犯罪现场的抗辨”,现义为“辩解,托辞”。答案为C。
14. ______ have experienced the extensions of meanings.
15. When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is ______ accordingly.
A.related
B.narrowed
C.created
D.suggested
A B C D
B
[解析] 普通名词转化为专有名词时,词义也随之缩小。答案为B。
16. Narrowing of meaning is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquired a narrower or ______ sense.
A.typical
B.specialized
C.general
D.particular
A B C D
B
[解析] Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. 词义的缩小是指意义范围较大的词范围缩小或者具体化的过程。答案为B。
17. The original meaning of wife is ______.
A.a married woman
B.a young woman
C.woman
D.widowed woman
A B C D
C
[解析] Wife originally means "woman" and now means "a married woman". 妻子原义是“女人”现义为“已婚女人”。答案为C。
18. The meaning of meat changed by the mode of ______.
A.extension
B.narrowing
C.elevation
D.degradation
A B C D
B
[解析] Meat originally means "food" and now means "flesh of animals". 肉的原义是“食物”而现义为“动物的肉”,可见词义缩小了。答案为B。
19. Which word that formerly meant animal, and later animal from Latin and beast from French found their way into English?
21. The original meaning of "nice" is "ignorant" or "foolish" and its modern meanings "delightful". This is ______.
A.extension
B.degradation
C.transfer of word meaning
D.elevation
A B C D
D
[解析] The original meaning of nice was "ignorant", then changed to "foolish" and now elevated to mean "delightful, pleasant". 可见nice一词原来表示低微意义现在转变成为表示重要意义的词,属于词义的升格。答案为D。
22. The meaning of "fond" changed from "foolish" to "affectionate" by mode of ______.
A.extension
B.narrowing
C.elevation
D.degradation
A B C D
C
[解析] Fond originally means "foolish" and now means "affectionate". fond一词的词义从“愚蠢”变为“喜爱”。可见fond一词的词义升格了。答案为C。
23. Degradation can be illustrated by the following example ______.
[解析] Minister originally meant "servant" and now means "head of a ministry". minister一词的原义是“仆人”而现义是“部长、大臣”。答案为D。
27. The meaning of knave changed by the mode of ______.
A.elevation
B.extension
C.degradation
D.narrowing
A B C D
C
[解析] Knave originally meant "boy" and now means "dishonest person". knave原义为“男孩”而现义为“不诚实的人”。可见knave一词的词义从原来的中性转为贬义,属于词义的降格,即degradation。答案为C。
28. The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called ______.
A.derivation
B.deterioration
C.purification
D.pejoration
A B C D
D
[解析] Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. 词义的降格与词义的升格是相反的,即原来的褒义词或中性词降格,现在表示贬义。答案为D。
29. Dreadful and hateful belong to ______.
A.transfer from subjective to objective meaning
B.transfer of sensation
C.transfer from objective to subjective
D.transfer between abstract and concrete meanings
A B C D
A
[解析] Other examples are dreadful and hateful, which have transferred from a subjective meaning to an objective meaning. dreadful(可怕的)和hateful(可恨的)这两个词从主观意义转化成了客观意义。答案为A。
30. The well-known semanticist Ullmann notes, "language is more ______ than civilization, material as well as moral."
A.creative
B.conservative
C.radical
D.constructive
A B C D
B
[解析] The well-known semanticist Ullmann notes, "language is more conservative than civilization, material as well as moral." 著名语义学家Ullmann说:“语言比文化、物质和道德都保守。”答案为B。
31. Extra-linguistic factors of word-meaning change include ______.
A.historical
B.psychological reason
C.class reason
D.all the above
A B C D
D
[解析] Extra-linguistic factors include historical reason, class reason and psychological reason. 非语言因素包括历史原因、阶级原因和心理原因。答案为D。
32. Which of the following words was used during the American Civil War to refer to those northerners who were secretly aiding the South?______
33. Linguistic factors of word-meaning change exclude ______.
A.internal factors within the language system
B.the influx of borrowing
C.analogy
D.grammar
A B C D
D
[解析] The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system. The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. The change of meaning is brought about by analogy.语言系统的内部因素可以引起语义变化。大量借词的涌入也引起了一些词的意义变化。最后,类比也产生了词义变化。答案为D。
34. Angel, martyr and paradise have their meanings ______ because of the influence of Christianity.
A.elevated
B.degraded
C.narrowed
D.extended
A B C D
A
[解析] As Archbishop Trench once said, angel, martyr and paradise have their meanings elevated because of the influence of Christianity. 大主教Trench说,angel(天使),martyr(烈士)和paradise(天国)等都是受基督教的影响而意义升格的词。答案为A。
35. In the sentence "Just after two years he is quite a grown boy now." The word grown can be classified into ______ sense of transfer.
A.physical
B.objective
C.sensational
D.subjective
A B C D
D
[解析] 在just after two years he is quite a grown boy now(两年不见,这个男孩长大了很多)中,grown可被归类于主观感觉的转移。答案为D。
Ⅱ.
1. Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and ______.
content
[解析] 词的形式和什么总是处于变化之中,是语言最不稳定的因素?Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. 答案为content。
2. Changing in word meaning has never ______ since the language came into being and will continue in the future.
ceased
[解析] 语言自产生以来其词义的变化就从未如何,而且还会继续下去?Changing in word meaning has never ceased since the language came into being and will continue in the future. 答案为ceased。
3. Extension of meaning is also known as ______.
generalization
[解析] 词义的扩大也称什么?Extension of meaning is also known as generalization. 答案为generalization。
4. Extension of meaning is a process by which a word originally had a specialized meaning has now become ______.
generalized
[解析] 词义的扩大是从表达某一门专门意义转化到表示什么意义的过程?Extension of meaning is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. 答案为generalized。
5. Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, ______ and transfer.
elevation
[解析] 词义变化有词义的扩大、缩小、降格、什么以及转移?Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation and transfer. 答案为elevation。
6. Narrowing of meaning is the opposite of ______ meaning.
widening
[解析] 词义的缩小是什么的相反?Narrowing of meaning is the opposite of widening meaning.答案为widening。
7. ______ or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
Elevation
[解析] 原来表示低微意义的词转而成为表示重要意义的词的词义演变过程叫什么?Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.答案为Elevation。
8. Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of ______ elevation.
semantic
[解析] 词义的降格与词义的什么相反?Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.答案为semantic。
9. Car which used to be a "two-wheel cart drawn by horses and used in ______" has taken on the meaning "automobile" with the development of modern car industry.
war
[解析] car曾是双轮马拉车,用于什么之中,但随着现代汽车工业的发展,已是“轿车”的意思?Car which used to be a "two-wheel cart drawn by horse and used in war" has taken on.... 答案为war。
10. There are generally ______ major factors that cause changes in word meaning.
two
[解析] 一般来说,词义变化有几个因素?There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning. 答案为two。
11. Changes of word meaning are due to linguistic factors and ______ factors.
extra-linguistic
[解析] 词义变化的原因是语言因素和什么?There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning. One is linguistic factors and the other is extra-linguistic factors. 答案为extra-linguistic。
12. The attitudes of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or ______.
degradation
[解析] 不同阶级态度影响了词义的升格或什么?The attitudes of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation. 答案为degradation。
13. Fortuitous formerly denoted "happening by chance accidental" and later took on the meaning "fortunate" probably by ______ because the two words look similar.
narrowing of meaning: Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.
2. elevation(amelioration)
elevation. Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. Take a common term nice for example. Its original meaning was "ignorant", then changed to "foolish" and now elevated to mean "delightful, pleasant".
3. associated transfer
associated transfer. Associated transfer is a term used in relation to changes in word meaning in which the meaning is transferred through association, e. g. purse for "money", dish for "food" etc.
Ⅳ.
1. What makes Shakespeare particularly difficult to read, old form of spelling, old ways of pronunciation or change of word meaning? How do you account for the semantic change in living languages?
Because many of the words used in Shakespeare's time had different senses from what they have now in contemporary dictionaries. Change of word-meaning makes Shakespeare particularly difficult to read. Take Hamlet for example. Rival means "partner" as in "The rivals of my watch, bid them make haste"; jump means "just" as in "This twice before, and jump at this dead hour"; vulgar signifies "common" as in "as common as any the most vulgar thing to sense"; censure signifies "opinion" as in "take each man's censure", but "reserve thy judgement"; fond designates "foolish" as in "I'll wipe away all trivial fond records", and so on. Changing in word-meaning has never ceased since the language came into being and will continue in the future. Semantic change occurs as society changes. People use the same word form to mean different things, which is a typical linguistic law.
2. How many types are there in word-meaning changes?
There are five types in word-meaning changes: (1) extension of meaning; (2)narrowing of meaning; (3) elevation; (4) degradation; (5)transfer. Of these, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.
3. What type of transfer is experienced for the word in bold type? The fairy tale "The Sleeping Beauty" is very interesting.
abstract to concrete
4. What are the causes of semantic changes?
There are many causes of semantic changes. The main causes are: (1) extra-linguistic factors. ①historical reason; ②class reason; ③psychological reason. (2) linguistic factors. ①shortening of phrases; ②influx of borrowings; ③analogy.
Ⅴ.
1. For the word "picture", its old meaning is "painting", its modern meanings are "paintings, drawings and photographs". Analyze which type of change in meaning this belongs to. Why? Then list the types of the word-meaning changes.
(1) Extension. (2)Because the meanings of the word "picture" is widened. (3) Word-meaning changes types: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation and transfer.
Analyze the three causes of meaning change within the scope of the linguistic factors, based on the given words below.
2. gold, bulb;
Internal factors: Such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole, e.g. "gold" is used for "gold medal", and "bulb" for "light bulb".
3. deer, beast, animals;
The influx of borrowings: Such change occurs when the borrowings are introduced into English vocabulary. For instance, "deer" formerly meant "animal", and later "animal" from Latin and "beast" from French found their way into English. As the three terms were synonymous, "animal" retained the original meaning, the meaning of "deer" was narrowed and "beast" changed in colour.
4. fortuitous, fruition.
Analogy: Such change occurs when analogy is used. For instance, "fortuitous" formerly denoted "happening by chance", "accidental" and later took on the meaning "fortunate" probably by analogy because the two words look similar. It is the same with "fruition", the original meaning being "a pleasure obtained from using or possessing something", which had nothing to do with fruit. Its meaning of "the bearing of fruit" was due to the later association with the word "fruit".